Magnesium is important to health – March 2021

Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency
Sections clipped from PDF
Vitamin D Life - Magnesium and Vitamin D contains
Vitamin D Life - Overview Magnesium and vitamin D Has a venn diagram
Vitamin D Life - 26 studies in both categories Virus and Magnesium

Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency

Nutrients 2021, 13(4), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041136
Diana Fiorentini , Concettina Cappadone +, Giovanna Farruggia Correspondence: giovanna.farruggia at unibo.it and Cecilia Prata 0
Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum—University of Bologna,
40126 Bologna, Italy; diana.fiorentini at unibo.it (D.F.); concettina.cappadone at unibo.it (C.C.); cecilia.prata at unibo.it (C.P.)

PDF Table of Contents

Mg Recommended intake

Mg Deficiency and Toxiocity

Magnesium plays an important role in many physiological functions. Habitually low intakes of magnesium and in general the deficiency of this micronutrient induce changes in biochemical pathways that can increase the risk of illness and, in particular, chronic degenerative diseases. The assessment of magnesium status is consequently of great importance, however, its evaluation is difficult. The measurement of serum magnesium concentration is the most commonly used and readily available method for assessing magnesium status, even if serum levels have no reliable correlation with total body magnesium levels or concentrations in specific tissues. Therefore, this review offers an overview of recent insights into magnesium from multiple perspectives. Starting from a biochemical point of view, it aims at highlighting the risk due to insufficient uptake (frequently due to the low content of magnesium in the modern western diet), at suggesting strategies to reach the recommended dietary reference values, and at focusing on the importance of detecting physiological or pathological levels of magnesium in various body districts, in order to counteract the social impact of diseases linked to magnesium deficiency.

Download the PDF from Vitamin D Life

Sections clipped from PDF

Diabetes Mellitus

It is well known that magnesium acts as an insulin sensitizer by inducing autophosphorylation of insulin receptors and regulating tyrosine kinase activity on these receptors [63,153,294,295]. In addition, magnesium may directly affect the activity of the glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and help to regulate glucose uptake into the cell [21]. Consequently, diets with higher amounts of magnesium are related to a significantly lower risk of diabetes [296]. Several studies report that a reduced intracellular magnesium level can lead to increased insulin resistance [93,297]. The incidence of hypomagnesemia in patients with type 2 diabetes is wide, ranging from 13.5-47.7% [298].
A 100 mg/day increase in total magnesium intake is reported to decrease the risk of diabetes by a statistically significant 15% [299]. Moreover, a meta-analysis of eight prospective cohort studies, involving 271,869 men and women over 4 to 18 years, showed a significant inverse association between magnesium intake from food and risk of type 2 diabetes; the relative risk reduction was 23% when the highest to lowest intakes were compared [300]. According to this, Dong et al. reported a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies of magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes included 13 studies with a total of 536,318 participants and 24,516 cases of diabetes. It was demonstrated that the magnesium intake is inversely associated with risk of contracting the disease in a dose-response manner [301]. The same conclusion was drawn from a prospective study on high risk population, involving 2582 community-dwelling participants followed up for 7 years [302]. Moreover, in a randomized controlled trial involving 116 adults with prediabetes and hypomagnesemia, the reduction of plasma glucose levels and the improvement of the glycemic status by oral magnesium supplementation were also demonstrated [303]. Additionally, a very recent trial sequential analysis confirmed that magnesium intake has an inverse dose-response association with type 2 diabetes incidence, and magnesium supplementation appears to be advisable in terms of glucose parameters in high-risk individuals [304].
Interestingly, some studies documented that hypomagnesemia could have an impact on many dysfunctions indicated in the pathophysiology of diabetes, such as diabetic nephropathy, poor lipid profile, and high risk of atherosclerosis, even indicating hypomagnesemia as a marker [103,305].

Osteoporosis

The most common bone disease in humans is osteoporosis, which represents a major public health problem and is more common in Caucasians, women, and older people [306].
It is well accepted that magnesium deficiency might represent a risk factor for osteoporosis [80,91]. Both dietary intake and supplementation of magnesium were investigated in relation to osteoporosis and risk of fractures in humans. Early works examining the effect of oral supplementation of magnesium in postmenopausal women evidenced a significant increase in BMD (bone mineral density), but the little number of enrolled subjects limited the conclusions that could be drawn [307,308]. According to one short-term study, 290 mg/day of elemental magnesium for 30 days in 20 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis counteract bone turnover and thus decreased bone loss compared with placebo [309]. Other investigations found a positive association between dietary magnesium, BMD, and lower risk of osteoporosis, suggesting that increasing magnesium intakes from food or supplements might increase BMD in postmenopausal and elderly patients [310,311].
A recent meta-analysis evidenced a positive slightly significant correlation between magnesium intake and BMD only for the femoral neck and total hip, but not for the lumbar spine [312].
Fractures and in particular osteoporotic fractures are widespread causes of disability and morbidity, especially among the aging population, and increase the burden on health systems [306]. The prevention of fractures and the evaluation of putative risk factors could be very important for the public health: serum magnesium, which may have predictive or causal relevance to the risk of fractures, could help to personalize preventive and therapeutic interventions [219]. Although several studies evidenced a positive correlation between BMD and magnesium intake, the relation to fracture outcomes is yet unclear. A prospective cohort study on 73,684 postmenopausal women showed that a lower magnesium intake is linked to decreased bone density in the hip and whole body. However this does not relate to an increase of fracture risks [313]. On the other hand, data from a large perspective study [314] and cross-sectional analysis [315] showed that by satisfying the recommended magnesium intake, the risk of fractures is lower. Accordingly, a strong association between low serum magnesium and increased risk of fractures was reported in a prospective cohort study of 2245 middle-aged Caucasian men over a 25-year period [219].

Cardiovascular Diseases

Increasing evidence from epidemiological studies, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses has shown inverse relationship between magnesium intake and cardiovascular disorders (CVD) [316]. Indeed, high magnesium intake is related to lower probability of major CV risk factors (such as hypertension and diabetes), stroke, and total CVD. In addition, a reduced risk of ischemic and coronary heart disease is related to higher levels of circulating magnesium [317].
It is well known that hypertension is an important risk factor for heart disease and stroke. As stated by A. Rosanoff, "Magnesium status has a direct effect upon the relaxation capability of vascular smooth muscle cells and the regulation of the cellular placement of other cations important to blood pressure—cellular sodium: potassium ratio and intracellular calcium. As a result, nutritional magnesium has both direct and indirect impacts on the regulation of blood pressure and therefore on the occurrence of hypertension" [318]. Early studies have shown that a magnesium deficiency could impact blood pressure, leading to hypertension. Oral magnesium supplementation may exert a moderate antihypertensive effect [319]. Afterwards, a meta-analysis of 12 clinical trials found that magnesium supplementation for 8-26 weeks in 545 hypertensive subjects obtained only a slight reduction in diastolic blood pressure with magnesium supplementation, ranging from nearly 243 to 973 mg/day [320]. Next, Kass et al. analyzed 22 studies with 1173 normotensive and hypertensive adults concluding that magnesium supplements for 3-24 weeks reduced both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, albeit to a small extent [321]. Other authors have pooled six prospective cohort studies including 20,119 cases and 180,566 participants. They found a statistically significant inverse association between dietary magnesium and hypertension risk without apparent evidence of heterogeneity between studies. The range of dietary magnesium intake among the included studies was 96-425 mg/day, and the follow-up ranged from 4 to 15 years [322]. Additionally, a meta-analysis on 11 randomized controlled trials counting 543 participants with preclinical or non-communicable diseases who were monitored for a range of 1-6 months, showed that the group supplemented with oral magnesium had a considerably greater decrease in blood pressure. An average reduction of 4.18 mmHg in systolic blood pressure and 2.27 mmHg in diastolic blood pressure was found after magnesium supplementation [323].
Magnesium deficiency reduces cardiac Na-K-ATPase, determining greater levels of sodium and calcium and lower levels of magnesium and potassium in the heart. Consequently, the vasoconstriction in the coronary arteries increases, inducing coronary artery spasms, heart attack, and cardiac arrhythmia [18]. Higher magnesium serum levels were significantly linked to a lower risk of CVD, as shown by a systematic review and metaanalysis of prospective studies, involving 313,041 individuals with 11,995 cardiovascular diseases, 7534 ischemic heart diseases, and 2686 fatal ischemic heart disease. Moreover, higher dietary magnesium intakes (up to approximately 250 mg/day) were correlated with a substantially lower risk of ischemic heart disease caused by a lowered blood supply to the heart muscle. Circulating serum magnesium (per 0.2 mmol/L increment) was associated with a 30% lower risk of CVD and trends toward lesser risks of ischemic heart disease and fatal ischemic heart disease [324]. In a monocentric, controlled, double-blind study, 79 patients with severe chronic heart failure under optimal medical cardiovascular treatment were randomized to receive either magnesium orotate or placebo. The two groups were similar in demographic data, duration of heart failure, and pre- and concomitant treatment. The survival rate was 75.7% compared to 51.6% under placebo, after 1 year of treatment. Clinical symptoms improved in 38.5% of patients under magnesium orotate, whereas they worsened in 56.3% of patients under placebo [325].
Additionally, magnesium has a well-established role in the management of torsade de pointes, a repetitive polymorphous ventricular tachycardia with prolongation of QT interval of the electrocardiogram. The guideline of the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology recommends intravenous administration of magnesium and potassium for the prevention and treatment of torsade de pointes, and tachycardia [326,327].
Low magnesium levels can also enhance endothelial cell dysfunction, potentially increasing the risk of atherosclerosis and thrombosis, stimulating a proatherogenic phenotype in endothelial cells [328]. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study evaluated heart disease risk factors and concentrations of serum magnesium in a cohort of 14,232 white and African American men and women aged 45 to 64 years at baseline. Over an average of 12 years of follow-up, individuals with a normal physiologic range of serum magnesium (at least 0.88 mmol/L) had a 38% reduced risk of sudden cardiac death in comparison with individuals with 0.75 mmol/L or less. Nevertheless, dietary magnesium intakes did not show any risk of sudden cardiac death [329].
In an updated meta-analysis involving more than 400,000 adults from different cohorts, who were followed for 5 to 28 years, the summary estimate comparing individuals at the higher versus the lowest categories of dietary magnesium intake demonstrated a protection of 14% against the risk of CVD death. Additional assessment of the subtypes of CVD death indicated that dietary magnesium intake was inversely and significantly associated with a lower risk for heart failure and sudden cardiac death. Further dose-response analysis showed a protection of 25% in women for the increment of 100 mg/day of magnesium intake [322]. Another prospective population study of 7664 adults aged 20 to 75 years without cardiovascular disease verified the protective action of magnesium in this context: it was found that low urinary magnesium excretion levels (an indicator for low dietary magnesium intake) were related to a superior risk of ischemic heart disease over a median follow-up period of 10.5 years [330].

Cancer

Hypomagnesemia is also a common medical problem that contributes to the morbidity of cancer patients. Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide; over 1.7 million people were diagnosed with cancer and over 600,000 deaths have resulted from this disease in 2018 alone [331,332].
The effects of diet in cancer metabolism are certainly an area of popular interest. A recent review highlights the mechanisms underlying magnesium disturbances due to cancer and/or its treatment [333]. Hypomagnesemia can be due to these physio-pathological mechanisms: (i) decreased intake, (ii) transcellular shift, (iii) gastrointestinal losses, and (iv) kidney losses. Moreover, cancer patients are at risk for opportunistic infections, cardiovascular complications, and are treated with classes of medications that cause or emphasize hypomagnesemia, like platinum-based chemotherapy, anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies, and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 target inhibitors (HER2) [334].
Several epidemiologic studies demonstrated that a diet poor in magnesium increases the risk of developing cancer, evidencing its importance in the field of hematology and oncology. Being an enzyme cofactor involved in the DNA repair mechanisms, magnesium plays a major role in maintaining genomic stability and fidelity, modulating cell cycle progression, cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Thus, magnesium deficiency could affects these systems, leading to DNA mutations, which may result in tumorigenesis and in both the risk and prognosis of cancers [78,335]. Moreover, a protective effect of magnesium against chemical carcinogenesis has been recently reported [27].
Some studies have focused on the effect of dietary magnesium on breast cancer prognosis, suggesting that higher dietary intake is inversely associated with mortality among breast cancer patients [336]. The effect of magnesium intake on breast cancer risk has been explored, both directly and indirectly via its effect on inflammatory markers C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 [337].
Liu et al. in a recent review evidenced that magnesium supplementation can protect the liver and reduce the morbidity and mortality associated also with liver cancer. Furthermore, the risk of cancer metastasis to the liver increases in cancer patients with magnesium deficiency [338]. According to this, an in vitro study has shown that magnesium canthari- date has an inhibitory effect on human hepatoma SMMC-7721 cell proliferation by blocking the MAPK signaling pathway [339]. Moreover, magnesium administration can increase the expression of protein phosphatase magnesium dependent 1A (PPM1a), blocking TGF-p signaling by dephosphorylating of p-Smad2/3, and thus preventing the transcription of specific genes necessary for hepatocellular cancer growth [340].
The association between magnesium and calcium intake and colorectal cancer (CRC) recurrence and all-cause mortality was also reported. It has been observed that 25(OH)D3 and magnesium may work synergistically in decreasing the risk of all-cause mortality in these patients [341]. Higher concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 at diagnosis are associated with a lower mortality risk in CRC patients. This is expected given the crucial roles of magnesium in several biochemical processes involved in the synthesis and metabolism of vitamin D [85,342]. In addition, in a meta-analysis that involved 3 case- control studies of colorectal adenomas and six prospective cohort studies of carcinomas, every 100 mg (4.11 mmol)/d increase in magnesium intake was associated with a 13% lower risk of colorectal adenomas and 12% lower risk of colorectal tumors [343]. Moreover, epidemiological studies have linked a magnesium deficiency with high Ca:Mg intake ratios to a higher incidence of colon cancer and mortality [342]. It has been proposed that this kind of magnesium deficiency increases intracellular calcium levels in part by increasing TRPM7 expression and unblocking the gating effect of magnesium on intracellular calcium entry. Increased intracellular calcium levels promote reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and magnesium deficiency likely blunts cell-associated antioxidant capacity to further promote oxidative stress. This study also sheds some insight on the epidemiological findings that link high Ca:Mg ratios with increased incidence of cancer [344-346] and increased mortality among colon cancer patients [347].
Observational studies evidenced that elevated magnesium content in drinking water is linked with a reduced risk of esophageal cancer and decreased mortality due to prostate and ovarian cancers. Higher dietary intake of magnesium decreases the risk beyond of above-mentioned colorectal cancer, also of pancreatic cancer and lung cancer [348-353].
Although most of the literature regards solid tumors, hypomagnesemia has also been correlated with a higher viral load of the Epstein Barr virus, a virus associated with a multitude of hematologic malignancies. Studies of patients with a rare primary immunodeficiency known as XMEN disease (x-linked immunodeficiency with magnesium defect, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, and Neoplasia disease) elucidated the role of magnesium in the immune system. These patients have a mutation in the MAGT1 gene, which codes for a magnesium transporter. The mutation leads to impaired T cell activation and an increased risk of developing hematologic malignancies. Furthermore, magnesium replacement may increase the immune system's ability to target and destroy cancer cells through this mechanism highlighted in patients with XMEN [27]. On the other hand, a very recent study has redefined MagT1 as a non-catalytic subunit of the oligosaccharyltransferase complex that facilitates Asparagine (N)-linked glycosylation of specific substrates. The authors proposed updating XMEN to "X-linked MAGT1 deficiency with increased susceptibility to EBV-infection and N-linked glycosylation defect". However, the precise mechanism by which MAGT1 is involved in the homeostasis of magnesium and how this affects the glycosylation defect requires further investigation [354].
Moreover, a very recent work assessed the disturbance of electrolyte in leukemia. In particular, a significantly higher concentration of calcium and a lower content of magnesium in the serum and whole blood of Acute leukemia children were found, as compared to healthy subjects. Furthermore, magnesium is replaced by calcium and harmful metals (As, Cd, and Pb) which results in its deficiency, producing physiological disorders, which may be involved in acute leukemia. The level of magnesium in normal children had the range of 150-279% than AL patients [355]. This finding is consistent with other previously reported data, which indicates an association between insufficiency of magnesium and development of malignant disorders [224,356-359]. These studies highlight that a diet enriched with magnesium can decrease the incidence of cancers and the possibility that hypomagnesemia is associated with poor outcomes in cancer patients undergoing treatment.

Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases are a substantial and wide spreading health burden worldwide, as shown in the Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) Study 2016. They represent the third most common cause of disability and premature death in the EU and their prevalence will presumably increase with the progressive ageing of the European population [293].
Numerous studies report the involvement of magnesium in these pathologies, the recurrent deficiency in the patients and the effectiveness of dietary integration [103,360,361]. The mechanisms by which magnesium can modulate these disorders are multiple and not fully understood. However, variation in the excitability of the central nervous system, spontaneous neuronal depolarization, and abnormal mitochondria functioning have been connected to most of them. Since glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter, it is often linked to etiology, prevention, and treatment of neuropathology [362,363]. For this reason, magnesium has been a potential strategy for neurological diseases mainly due to its negative modulation of the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Furthermore, magnesium is a key metabolic factor in mitochondrial functioning, lowering membrane permeability and consequently reducing the possibility of spontaneous neuronal depression due to hyperexcitability [50].
A very exhaustive review describes "The Role of Magnesium in Neurological Disorders", summarizing the recent literature on the role played by magnesium in counteracting the onset and co-treating the most frequent neurological diseases: chronic pain, migraine, stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's, as well as the commonly comorbid conditions of anxiety and depression. The authors claim that "despite to a great number of publications in this field the amount of quality data on the association of magnesium with various neurological disorders differs greatly." Nevertheless, compelling evidence is reported about the role of magnesium in migraine and depression and for counteracting chronic pain conditions and in anxiety as well [50].
From the social impact point of view, it is worth noting that a migraine is a debilitating brain disorder with serious social and financial consequences for the individual and society. The economic impact of headache disorders is enormous in EU countries, with an annual cost of 111 billion Euros. A total of 93% of the costs are indirect and attributable to reduced productivity rather than absenteeism [364]. The serum level of magnesium in migraine patients is frequently lower than healthy subjects. Oral magnesium supplementation is prescribed for prophylaxis while intravenous magnesium administration is routinely suggested for acute migraine. The American Academy of Neurology has revealed the effectiveness of oral magnesium usage in migraine prevention [365]. The efficacy of magnesium in acute migraine treatment was confirmed by different studies [366-368].

Depression is a frequent and debilitating disorder that affects almost 11% of adults older than 60 and 18.8% of those younger than 60. Depression is linked to inadequate quality of life with severe impairments and is often associated with other comorbid disorders, such as anxiety and chronic pain. Interestingly, magnesium plays a role in many pathways involved in the pathophysiology of depression and it is important for the activity of several enzymes, hormones, and neurotransmitters [157,369]. Low magnesium status has been associated with increased depressive symptoms in several different age groups and ethnic populations [370,371]. Recently, it has been reported that there is a significant association between very low magnesium intake and depression, especially in younger adults [372]. Magnesium supplementation has been associated with the improvements of symptoms linked to major depression, premenstrual condition, postpartum depression, and chronic fatigue syndrome [373,374]. A recent open-label randomized trial with 126 adults comparing 248 mg of magnesium to a placebo over six weeks, showed a significant improvement of depression scores within the magnesium group within the first two weeks of treatment [375,376].
Epilepsy is a disease that affects 50 million people worldwide, characterized by seizures occurrence. Seizure activity has been strongly linked to excessive glutamatergic neurotransmission thus, magnesium could also modulate the excitotoxicity connected to epilepsy [377]. In fact, it is well known that severe hypomagnesaemia, itself, can cause seizure activity [378]. Interestingly, it has been reported that pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, conditions associated with symptomatic seizures, improved after magnesium supplementation [50].
Stroke is a cerebrovascular disease characterized by symptoms such as slurred speech, paralysis/numbness, and difficulty walking. A recent publication on stroke reviewed multiple meta-analyses and reported a dose-dependent protective effect of magnesium against stroke. Most of the meta-analyses reviewed found that each 100 mg/day increment of dietary magnesium intake provided between 2% and 13% protection against total stroke. Another updated meta-analysis, including 40 prospective cohort studies, found a 22% protection against the risk of stroke when comparing people with the highest to the lowest categories of dietary magnesium intake [322].
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (AD and PD) represent two aging disease of neurodegenerative character with higher social impact. The cost burden of these pathologies in European countries rises year by year, and by 2050 it will be almost two times higher in comparison with the year of 2010, estimated to reach 357 billion Euros [293,379].
AD is characterized by profound synapse loss and impairments of learning and memory. Excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction have all been implicated in Alzheimer's disease, thus, hypomagnesaemia could further hinder neuronal activity [380]. The level of magnesium in a diet is critical to support synaptic plasticity, and the decline in hippocampal synaptic connections has been associated with impaired memory [381]. Recent findings in animal studies are encouraging and provide novel insights into the neuroprotective effects of magnesium. Magnesium treatment, in fact, at an early stage may decrease the risk of cognitive decline in AD [382]. This coincides with earlier studies proving that the increase in the concentration of magnesium in the extracellular fluid results in a permanent increase in synaptic plasticity of hippocampal neurons cultured in vitro and improves learning and memory in rats [383]. Moreover, recent research suggests that ionized magnesium, cerebral spinal fluid magnesium, hair magnesium, plasma magnesium, and red blood cell magnesium concentrations are significantly reduced in AD patients compared to healthy and medical controls [21,384]. Nevertheless, the exact role of magnesium in AD pathogenesis remains unclear.
Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disease that occurs in the substantia nigra and striatum. The exact cause of its pathological changes is still not very clear, although genetic, aging, and oxidative stress have been suggested to be linked to it. It has been shown that the concentration of magnesium in the cortex, white matter, basal ganglia, and brainstem of the PD brain is low [385,386]. However, the association between circulating magnesium and PD is still ambiguous and controversial. Human research of magnesium concentrations in PD is severely lacking, despite growing evidence implicating magnesium in animal studies [356]. The latest published study on magnesium and PD was a multicentered hospital-based case-control study that examined the dietary intake of metals in patients who were found to be within six years of onset for PD. The study found that higher magnesium concentrations were associated with a reduced risk of PD [387].
Furthermore, the involvement of magnesium in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), a serious neurodevelopmental condition characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, has been reported. The estimated prevalence of ADHD is between 5% and 7% in schoolchildren worldwide. Frequently, learning disorders are associated with this disease and these impairments can influence children's quality of life and impose substantial costs on their family, health-care services, and educational systems worldwide [388]. It is well accepted that magnesium might be useful as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of ADHD because it has been reported that the serum magnesium level in ADHD children was lower than the controls [389,390]. Moreover, magnesium supplementation (alone or in combination with vitamins or other metals) significantly improved ADHD symptoms [391,392]. Magnesium supplementation along with standard treatment ameliorated inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, opposition, and conceptual level in children with ADHD. A very recent paper assessed that magnesium and vitamin D supplementation in children with ADHD disorder was effective on conduct problems, social problems, and anxiety/shy scores compared with placebo intake [381,388].

Conclusions

This multifaceted analysis of the importance of magnesium for maintaining a good state of health, starting from the tuning role played by this element at cellular level, revealed the importance of disseminating dietary strategies that satisfy the recommended daily value. Moreover, it is fundamental to have reliable and minimally invasive methods either to promptly identify magnesium deficiency in various body districts or to accurately monitor the efficacy of supplements to prevent and counteract diseases that correlate with magnesium deficiency. Indeed, magnesium has to be considered as a real metabolite instead of a simple electrolyte and its deficiency has a great impact on different physiological functions.
Data from many studies indicate that in about 60% of adults, magnesium intakes from the diet is insufficient and that subclinical magnesium deficiency is a widely diffused condition in the western population. Hence, more attention should be paid to the preventive role of magnesium for social pathologies, encouraging a more adequate dietary intake of the cation and supplementations. As extensively described above, magnesium is found in a wide variety of non-refined foods and is among the less expensive available supplements. Moreover, magnesium trials have shown that magnesium supplements are well tolerated and generally improve multiple markers of disease status.

References

Romani, A.M. Cellular magnesium homeostasis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2011, 512,1-23. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
De Baaij, J.H.F.; Hoenderop, J.G.J.; Bindels, R.J.M. Magnesium in Man: Implications for Health and Disease. Physiol. Rev. 2015, 95, 1-46. [CrossRef]
Saris, N.E.L.; Mervaala, E.; Karppanen, H.; Khawaja, J.A.; Lewenstam, A. Magnesium: An update on physiological, clinical and analytical aspects. Clin. Chim. Acta 2000, 294,1-26. [CrossRef]
Schuchardt, J.P.; Hahn, A. Intestinal Absorption and Factors Influencing Bioavailability of Magnesium-An Update. Curr. Nutr. Food Sci. 2017,13, 260-278. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Konrad, M.; Schlingmann, K.P.; Gudermann, T. Insights into the molecular nature of magnesium homeostasis. Am. J. Physiol. Physiol. 2004, 286, F599-F605. [CrossRef]
Ismail, A.A.A.; Ismail, Y.; Ismail, A.A. Chronic magnesium deficiency and human disease; time for reappraisal? QJM 2018,111, 759-763. [CrossRef]
Elin, R.J. Assessment of magnesium status for diagnosis and therapy. Magnes. Res. 2010,23,194-198.
Reddi, A.S.; Reddi, A.S. Disorders of Magnesium: Hypomagnesemia. In Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2018.
Witkowski, M.; Hubert, J.; Mazur, A. Methods of assessment of magnesium status in humans: A systematic review. Magnes. Res. 2011, 24,163-180. [CrossRef]
Nielsen, F.H. Guidance for the determination of status indicators and dietary requirements for magnesium. Magnes. Res. 2016, 29, 154-160. [CrossRef]
Costello, R.B.; Elin, R.J.; Rosanoff, A.; Wallace, T.C.; Guerrero-Romero, F.; Hruby, A.; Lutsey, P.L.; Nielsen, F.H.; Rodriguez-Moran, M.; Song, Y.; et al. Perspective: The Case for an Evidence-Based Reference Interval for Serum Magnesium: The Time Has Come. Adv. Nutr. 2016, 7, 977-993. [CrossRef]
Razzaque, M.S. Magnesium: Are we consuming enough? Nutrients 2018,10,1863. [CrossRef]
Costello, R.; Wallace, T.; Rosanoff, A. Nutrient Information: Magnesium. Adv. Nutr. Int. Rev. J. 2016, 7,199-201. [CrossRef]
Rude, R.K.; Gruber, H.E. Magnesium deficiency and osteoporosis: Animal and human observations. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2004,15, 710-716. [CrossRef]
Whang, R. Frequency of hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia. Requested vs routine. JAMA 1990, 263, 3063-3064. [CrossRef]
Rosanoff, A.; Weaver, C.M.; Rude, R.K. Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: Are the health consequences underestimated? Nutr. Rev. 2012, 70,153-164. [CrossRef]
Khalil, S.I. Magnesium the forgotten cation. Int. J. Cardiol. 1999, 68,133-135.
DiNicolantonio, J.J.; O'Keefe, J.H.; Wilson, W. Subclinical magnesium deficiency: A principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisis. Open Heart 2018, 5, e000668. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Martin, K.J.; González, E.A.; Slatopolsky, E. Clinical Consequences and Management of Hypomagnesemia. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2008, 20, 2291-2295. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Van Laecke, S. Hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia. Acta Clin. Belgica Int. J. Clin. Lab. Med. 2019, 74, 41-47. [CrossRef]
Gröber, U.; Schmidt, J.; Kisters, K. Magnesium in Prevention and Therapy. Nutrients 2015, 7, 8199-8226. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Jahnen-Dechent, W.; Ketteler, M. Magnesium basics. Clin. Kidney J. 2012, 5, i3-i14. [CrossRef]
Gröber, U. Magnesium and Drugs. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2094. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Schäffers, O.J.M.; Hoenderop, J.G.J.; Bindels, R.J.M.; De Baaij, J.H.F. The rise and fall of novel renal magnesium transporters. Am. J. Physiol. Physiol. 2018, 314, F1027-F1033. [CrossRef]
Auwercx, J.; Rybarczyk, P.; Kischel, P.; Dhennin-Duthille, I.; Chatelain, D.; Sevestre, H.; Van Seuningen, I.; Ouadid-Ahidouch, H.; Jonckheere, N.; Gautier, M. Mg2+ transporters in digestive cancers. Nutrients 2021,13, 210. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Zou, Z.-G.; Rios, F.J.; Montezano, A.C.; Touyz, R.M. TRPM7, Magnesium, and Signaling. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20,1877. [CrossRef]
Gile, J.; Ruan, G.; Abeykoon, J.; McMahon, M.M.; Witzig, T. Magnesium: The overlooked electrolyte in blood cancers? Blood Rev. 2020, 44,100676. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Huang, Y.; Jin, F.; Funato, Y.; Xu, Z.; Zhu, W.; Wang, J.; Sun, M.; Zhao, Y.; Yu, Y.; Miki, H.; et al. Structural basis for the Mg2+ recognition and regulation of the CorC Mg2+ transporter. Sci. Adv. 2021, 7, eabe6140. [CrossRef]
Giménez-Mascarell, P.; Schirrmacher, C.E.; Martínez-Cruz, L.A.; Müller, D. Novel aspects of renal magnesium homeostasis. Front. Pediatr. 2018, 6, 77. [CrossRef]
Blaine, J.; Chonchol, M.; Levi, M. Renal Control of Calcium, Phosphate, and Magnesium Homeostasis. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2014,10,1257-1272. [CrossRef]
Wang, J.; Um, P.; Dickerman, B.A.; Liu, J. Zinc, Magnesium, Selenium and Depression: A Review of the Evidence, Potential Mechanisms and Implications. Nutrients 2018,10, 584. [CrossRef]
Dolati, S.; Rikhtegar, R.; Mehdizadeh, A.; Yousefi, M. The Role of Magnesium in Pathophysiology and Migraine Treatment. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2019,196, 375-383. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Quamme, G.A. Recent developments in intestinal magnesium absorption. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2008, 24, 230-235. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Piano, F.L.; Corsonello, A.; Corica, F. Magnesium and elderly patient: The explored paths and the ones to be explored: A review. Magnes. Res. 2019, 32,1-15.
Sun, Y.; Sukumaran, P.; Singh, B.B. Magnesium-Induced Cell Survival Is Dependent on TRPM7 Expression and Function. Mol. Neurobiol. 2020, 57, 528-538. [CrossRef]
Ebel, H.; Günther, T.; Günther, H.E.T. Magnesium Metabolism: A Review. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 1980,18, 257-270. [CrossRef]
Seo, J.W.; Park, TJ. Magnesium Metabolism. Electrolytes Blood Press. 2008, 6, 86-95. [CrossRef]
Bairoch, A. The ENZYME database in 2000. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000, 28, 304-305. [CrossRef]
Caspi, R.; Altman, T.; Dreher, K.; Fulcher, C.A.; Subhraveti, P.; Keseler, I.M.; Kothari, A.; Krummenacker, M.; Latendresse, M.; Mueller, L.A.; et al. The MetaCyc database of metabolic pathways and enzymes and the BioCyc collection of pathway/genome databases. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012, 40, D742-D753. [CrossRef]
Feng, J.; Wang, H.; Jing, Z.; Wang, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Wang, W.; Sun, W. Role of Magnesium in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2020,196, 74-85. [CrossRef]
Brautigam, C.A.; Steitz, T.A. Structural and functional insights provided by crystal structures of DNA polymerases and their substrate complexes. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 1998, 8, 54-63. [CrossRef]
Chul Suh, W.; Leirmo, S.; Thomas Record, M. Roles of Mg2+ in the Mechanism of Formation and Dissociation of Open Complexes between Escherichia coli RNA Polymerase and the APR Promoter: Kinetic Evidence for a Second Open Complex Requiring Mg2+. Biochemistry 1992, 31, 7815-7825.
Alfrey, A.C.; Miller, N.L.; Trow, R. Effect of Age and Magnesium Depletion on Bone Magnesium Pools in Rats. J. Clin. Investig. 1974, 54,1074-1081. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Mammoli, F.; Castiglioni, S.; Parenti, S.; Cappadone, C.; Farruggia, G.; Iotti, S.; Davalli, P.; Maier, J.A.; Grande, A.; Frassineti, C. Magnesium Is a Key Regulator of the Balance between Osteoclast and Osteoblast Differentiation in the Presence of Vitamin D3. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019,20, 385. [CrossRef]
Lu, W.-C.; Pringa, E.; Chou, L. Effect of magnesium on the osteogenesis of normal human osteoblasts. Magnes. Res. 2017, 30, 42-52. [CrossRef]
Zofkova, I.; Davis, M.; Blahos, J. Trace Elements Have Beneficial, as Well as Detrimental Effects on Bone Homeostasis. Physiol. Res. 2017, 66, 391-402. [CrossRef]
Mubagwa, K.; Gwanyanya, A.; Zakharov, S.; Macianskiene, R. Regulation of cation channels in cardiac and smooth muscle cells by intracellular magnesium. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2007, 458, 73-89. [CrossRef]
Iseri, L.T.; French, J.H. Magnesium: Nature's physiologic calcium blocker. Am. Heart J. 1984,108,188-193. [CrossRef]
Paoletti, P.; Bellone, C.; Zhou, Q. NMDA receptor subunit diversity: Impact on receptor properties, synaptic plasticity and disease. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2013,14, 383-400. [CrossRef]
Kirkland, A.E.; Sarlo, G.L.; Holton, K.F. The Role of Magnesium in Neurological Disorders. Nutrients 2018,10, 730. [CrossRef]
Caspi, R.; Billington, R.; Keseler, I.M.; Kothari, A.; Krummenacker, M.; Midford, P.E.; Ong, W.K.; Paley, S.; Subhraveti, P; Karp, P.D. The MetaCyc database of metabolic pathways and enzymes—A 2019 update. Nucleic Acids Res. 2020, 48, D445-D453. [CrossRef]
Sanders, G.T.; Huijgen, H.J.; Sanders, R. Magnesium in Disease: A Review with Special Emphasis on the Serum Ionized Magnesium. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 1999, 37,1011-1033. [CrossRef]
Garfinkel, L.; Garfinkel, D. Magnesium regulation of the glycolytic pathway and the enzymes involved. Magnesium 1985, 4, 60-72.
Gomez Puyou, A.; Ayala, G.; Muller, U.; Tuena de Gomez Puyou, M. Regulation of the synthesis and hydrolysis of ATP by mitochondrial ATPase. Role of Mg2+. J. Biol. Chem. 1983, 258,13680-13684. [CrossRef]
Willson, V.J.C.; Tipton, K.F. The Activation of Ox-Brain NAD+-Dependent Isocitrate Dehydrogenase by Magnesium Ions. JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 1981,113, 477-483. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Panov, A.; Scarpa, A. Independent Modulation of the Activity of a-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex by Ca2+ and Mg2+. Biochemtry 1996, 35, 427-432. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Thomas, A.P.; Diggle, T.A.; Denton, R.M. Sensitivity of pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphate phosphatase to magnesium ions. Similar effects of spermine and insulin. Biochem. J. 1986,238, 83-91. [CrossRef]
Galkin, M.A.; Syroeshkin, A.V. Kinetic mechanism of ATP synthesis catalyzed by mitochondrial Fo x F1-ATPase. Biochemtry 1999, 64,1176-1185.
Barbiroli, B.; Iotti, S.; Cortelli, P.; Martinelli, P.; Lodi, R.; Carelli, V.; Montagna, P. Low Brain Intracellular Free Magnesium in Mitochondrial Cytopathies. Br. J. Pharmacol. 1999,19, 528-532. [CrossRef]
Shigematsu, M.; Nakagawa, R.; Tomonaga, S.; Funaba, M.; Matsui, T. Fluctuations in metabolite content in the liver of magnesium- deficient rats. Br. J. Nutr. 2016,116,1694-1699. [CrossRef]
Mooren, F.C. Magnesium and disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2015,17, 813-823. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Barbagallo, M.; Dominguez, L.J. Magnesium metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2007, 458, 40-47. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Kostov, K. Effects of Magnesium Deficiency on Mechanisms of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes: Focusing on the Processes of Insulin Secretion and Signaling. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20,1351. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sohrabipour, S.; Sharifi, M.R.; Talebi, A.; Soltani, N. Effect of magnesium sulfate administration to improve insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes animal model: Using the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp technique. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 2018, 32, 603-616. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bohn, T.; Davidsson, L.; Walczyk, T.; Hurrell, R.F. Fractional magnesium absorption is significantly lower in human subjects from a meal served with an oxalate-rich vegetable, spinach, as compared with a meal served with kale, a vegetable with a low oxalate content. Br. J. Nutr. 2004, 91, 601-606. [CrossRef]
Anastassopoulou, J.; Theophanides, T. Magnesium-DNA interactions and the possible relation of magnesium to carcinogenesis. Irradiation and free radicals. Crit. Rev. Oncol. 2002, 42, 79-91. [CrossRef]
Wolf, F.; Maier, J.; Nasulewicz, A.; Feillet-Coudray, C.; Simonacci, M.; Mazur, A.; Cittadini, A. Magnesium and neoplasia: From carcinogenesis to tumor growth and progression or treatment. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2007, 458, 24-32. [CrossRef]
Yang, W. An overview of Y-family DNA polymerases and a case study of human DNA polymerase n. Biochemistry 2014, 53, 2793-2803. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lindahl, T.; Adams, A.; Fresco, J.R. Renaturation of transfer ribonucleic acids through site binding of magnesium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1966, 55, 941-948. [CrossRef]
Misra, V.K.; Draper, D.E. The linkage between magnesium binding and RNA folding 1 1Edited by B. Honig. J. Mol. Biol. 2002, 317,507-521. [CrossRef]
Tan, Z.J.; Chen, S.J. Importance of diffuse metal ion binding to RNA. Met. Ions Life Sci. 2011, 9,101-124. [PubMed]
Fandilolu, P.M.; Kamble, A.S.; Dound, A.S.; Sonawane, K.D. Role of Wybutosine and Mg2+ Ions in Modulating the Structure and Function of tRNAPhe: A Molecular Dynamics Study. ACS Omega 2019, 4, 21327-21339. [CrossRef]
Strulson, C.A.; Boyer, J.A.; Whitman, E.E.; Bevilacqua, P.C. Molecular crowders and cosolutes promote folding cooperativity of RNA under physiological ionic conditions. RNA 2014,20, 331-347. [CrossRef]
Yamagami, R.; Bingaman, J.L.; Frankel, E.A.; Bevilacqua, P.C. Cellular conditions of weakly chelated magnesium ions strongly promote RNA stability and catalysis. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 2149. [CrossRef]
Yamagami, R.; Huang, R.; Bevilacqua, P.C. Cellular Concentrations of Nucleotide Diphosphate-Chelated Magnesium Ions Accelerate Catalysis by RNA and DNA Enzymes. Biochemtry 2019, 58, 3971-3979. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Forrest, D. Unusual relatives of the multisubunit RNA polymerase. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2019, 47, 219-228. [CrossRef]
Rubin, H. The membrane, magnesium, mitosis (MMM) model of cell proliferation control. Magnes. Res. 2005,18, 268-274.
Castiglioni, S.; Maier, J.A. Magnesium and cancer: A dangerous liason. Magnes. Res. 2011, 24, 92-100. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Boskey, A.L.; Rimnac, C.M.; Bansal, M.; Federman, M.; Lian, J.; Boyan, B.D. Effect of short-term hypomagnesemia on the chemical and mechanical properties of rat bone. J. Orthop. Res. 1992,10, 774-783. [CrossRef]
Castiglioni, S.; Cazzaniga, A.; Albisetti, W.; Maier, J.A.M. Magnesium and Osteoporosis: Current State of Knowledge and Future Research Directions. Nutrients 2013, 5, 3022-3033. [CrossRef]
Salimi, M.H.; Heughebaert, J.C.; Nancollas, G.H. Crystal growth of calcium phosphates in the presence of magnesium ions. Langmuir 1985,1,119-122. [CrossRef]
Cohen, L.; Kitzes, R. Infrared spectroscopy and magnesium content of bone mineral in osteoporotic women. 1SR J. Med. Sci. 1981, 17,1123-1125. [PubMed]
Swaminathan, R. Magnesium Metabolism and its Disorders. Clin. Biochem. Rev. 2003,24, 47-66. [PubMed]
Ozsoylu, S.; Hanioglu, N. Serum magnesium levels in children with vitamin D deficiency rickets. Turk. J. Pediatr. 1977,19, 89-96.
Uwitonze, A.M.; Razzaque, M.S. Role of Magnesium in Vitamin D Activation and Function. J. Am. Osteopat. Assoc. 2018,118, 181-189. [CrossRef]
Reddy, V.; Sivakumar, B. Magnesium-dependent vitamin-D-resistant rickets. Lancet 1974, 303, 963-965. [CrossRef]
Erem, S.; Atfi, A.; Razzaque, M.S. Anabolic effects of vitamin D and magnesium in aging bone. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2019, 193,105400. [CrossRef]
Lewiecki, E.M.; Miller, P.D. Skeletal Effects of Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Bone Mineral Density and Fracture Risk. J. Clin. Densitom. 2013,16, 28-32. [CrossRef]
Vetter, T.; Lohse, M.J. Magnesium and the parathyroid. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2002,11, 403-410. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Rodriguez-Ortiz, M.E.; Canalejo, A.; Herencia, C.; Martinez-Moreno, J.M.; Peralta-Ramirez, A.; Perez-Martinez, P.; Navarro- Gonzalez, J.F.; Rodriguez, M.; Peter, M.; Gundlach, K.; et al. Magnesium modulates parathyroid hormone secretion and upregulates parathyroid receptor expression at moderately low calcium concentration. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2014, 29, 282-289. [CrossRef]
Rude, R.K.; Singer, F.R.; Gruber, H.E. Skeletal and Hormonal Effects of Magnesium Deficiency. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2009, 28,131-141. [CrossRef]
Mazur, A.; Maier, J.A.; Rock, E.; Gueux, E.; Nowacki, W.; Rayssiguier, Y. Magnesium and the inflammatory response: Potential physiopathological implications. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2007, 458, 48-56. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nielsen, F.H. Magnesium deficiency and increased inflammation: Current perspectives. J. Inflamm. Res. 2018,11,25-34. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Klein, G.L. The Role of Calcium in Inflammation-Associated Bone Resorption. Biomolecules 2018, 8, 69. [CrossRef]
Guzel, A.; Dogan, E.; Turkgu, G.; Kuyumcu, M.; Kaplan, I.; ^elik, F.; Yildirim, Z.B. Dexmedetomidine and Magnesium Sulfate: A Good Combination Treatment for Acute Lung Injury? J. Investig. Surg. 2019, 32, 331-342. [CrossRef]
Tang, C.-F.; Ding, H.; Jiao, R.-Q.; Wu, X.-X.; Kong, L.-D. Possibility of magnesium supplementation for supportive treatment in patients with COVID-19. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2020, 886,173546. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Iotti, S.; Wolf, F.; Mazur, A.; Maier, J.A. The COVID-19 pandemic: Is there a role for magnesium? Hypotheses and perspectives. Magnes. Res. 2020, 33, 21-27. [CrossRef]
White, R.E.; Hartzell, H.C. Effects of intracellular free magnesium on calcium current in isolated cardiac myocytes. Science 1988, 239, 778-780. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Wang, M.; Tashiro, M.; Berlin, J.R. Regulation of L-type calcium current by intracellular magnesium in rat cardiac myocytes. J. Physiol. 2004, 555, 383-396. [CrossRef]
Chakraborti, S.; Chakraborti, T.; Mandal, M.; Mandal, A.; Das, S.; Ghosh, S. Protective role of magnesium in cardiovascular diseases: A review. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2002, 238,163-179. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Rasmussen, H.S.; Thomsen, P.E.B. The electrophysiological effects of intravenous magnesium on human sinus node, atrioventricular node, atrium, and ventricle. Clin. Cardiol. 1989,12, 85-90. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Severino, P.; Netti, L.; Mariani, M.V.; Maraone, A.; D'Amato, A.; Scarpati, R.; Infusino, F.; Pucci, M.; LaValle, C.; Maestrini, V.; et al. Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Screening for Magnesium Deficiency. Cardiol. Res. Pract. 2019,2019, 4874921. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Al Alawi, A.M.; Majoni, S.W.; Falhammar, H. Magnesium and Human Health: Perspectives and Research Directions. 1nt. J. Endocrinol. 2018, 2018,1-17. [CrossRef]
Houston, M. The Role of Magnesium in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease. J. Clin. Hypertens. 2011, 13, 843-847. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bilbey, D.L.; Prabhakaran, V.M. Muscle cramps and magnesium deficiency: Case reports. Can. Fam. Physician Med. Fam. Can. 1996, 42,1348-1351.
Garrison, S.R.; Korownyk, C.S.; Kolber, M.R.; Allan, G.M.; Musini, V.M.; Sekhon, R.K.; Dugre, N. Magnesium for skeletal muscle cramps. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2020. [CrossRef]
Stroebel, D.; Casado, M.; Paoletti, P. Triheteromeric NMDA receptors: From structure to synaptic physiology. Curr. Opin. Physiol. 2018, 2,1-12. [CrossRef]
Moykkynen, T.; Uusi-Oukari, M.; Heikkila, J.; Lovinger, D.M.; Luddens, H.; Korpi, E.R. Magnesium potentiation of the function of native and recombinant GABAA receptors. Neuroreport 2001,12, 2175-2179. [CrossRef]
Olloquequi, J.; Cornejo-Cordova, E.; Verdaguer, E.; Soriano, F.X.; Binvignat, O.; Auladell, C.; Camins, A. Excitotoxicity in the pathogenesis of neurological and psychiatric disorders: Therapeutic implications. J. Psychopharmacol. 2018, 32, 265-275. [CrossRef]
Steinert, J.R.; Postlethwaite, M.; Jordan, M.D.; Chernova, T.; Robinson, S.W.; Forsythe, I.D. NMDAR-mediated EPSCs are maintained and accelerate in time course during maturation of mouse and rat auditory brainstem in vitro. J. Physiol. 2010, 588, 447-463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bigal, M.E.; Walter, S.; Rapoport, A.M. Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) and Migraine Current Understanding and State of Development. Headache J. Head Face Pain 2013, 53,1230-1244. [CrossRef]
Weglicki, W.B. Hypomagnesemia and Inflammation: Clinical and Basic Aspects. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2012, 32, 55-71. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medeiros, D.M. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 924. [CrossRef]
Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
Price, M.; Preedy, V Dietary Reference Values. In Metabolism and Pathophysiology of Bariatric Surgery; Elsevier BV: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 399-417.
EFSA Scientific Panel NDA. Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for magnesium. EFSA J. 2015,13, 4186.
Cioffi, I.; Imperatore, N.; Di Vincenzo, O.; Pagano, M.C.; Santarpia, L.; Pellegrini, L.; Testa, A.; Marra, M.; Contaldo, F.; Castiglione, F.; et al. Evaluation of nutritional adequacy in adult patients with Crohn's disease: A cross-sectional study. Eur. J. Nutr. 2020, 59, 3647-3658. [CrossRef]
Di Riferimento, L.L.D.A. Di Nutrienti ed Energia per la Popolazione Italiana; Doc. di Sintesi per XXXV Congr.; Società Italiana di Nutrizione Umana (SINU): Milano, Italy, 2012.
Dietary Reference Values for nutrients Summary report. EFSA Support. Publ. 2017,14, e15121. [CrossRef]
Tedstone, A.; Dunce, N.; Aviles, M.; Shetty, P.; Daniels, L. Effectiveness of interventions to promote healthy feeding in infants under one year of age. Natl. Inst. Heal. Res. 2018, 61,1012-1021. [CrossRef]
O'Neill, L.M.; Dwyer, J.T.; Bailey, R.L.; Reidy, K.C.; Saavedra, J.M. Harmonizing Micronutrient Intake Reference Ranges for Dietary Guidance and Menu Planning in Complementary Feeding. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2020, 4, nzaa017. [CrossRef]
Shergill-Bonner, R. Micronutrients. Paediatr. Child Health. 2017, 27, 357-362. [CrossRef]
Melby, M.K.; Utsugi, M.; Miyoshi, M.; Watanabe, S. Overview of nutrition reference and dietary recommendations in Japan: Application to nutrition policy in Asian countries. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008,17 (Suppl. S2), 394-398. [PubMed]
Durlach, J.; Pagès, N.; Bac, P.; Bara, M.; Guiet-Bara, A. New data on the importance of gestational Mg deficiency. Magnes. Res. 2004,17,116-125. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Makrides, M.; Crosby, D.D.; Shepherd, E.; Crowther, C.A. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014, 2014, CD000937. [CrossRef]
Lukaski, H.C. Magnesium, zinc, and chromium nutriture and physical activity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 72, 585S-593S. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Zhang, Y.; Xun, P.; Wang, R.; Mao, L.; He, K. Can Magnesium Enhance Exercise Performance? Nutrients 2017, 9, 946. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nielsen, F.H.; Lukaski, H.C. Update on the relationship between magnesium and exercise. Magnes. Res. 2006,19,180.
Setaro, L.; Santos-Silva, P.R.; Nakano, E.Y.; Sales, C.H.; Nunes, N.; Greve, J.M.; Colli, C. Magnesium status and the physical performance of volleyball players: Effects of magnesium supplementation. J. Sports Sci. 2013, 32,438-445. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Casoni, I.; Guglielmini, C.; Graziano, L.; Reali, M.; Mazzotta, D.; Abbasciano, V. Changes of Magnesium Concentrations in Endurance Athletes. Int. J. Sports Med. 1990,11, 234-237. [CrossRef]
Reno, A.M.; Green, M.; Killen, L.G.; O'Neal, E.K.; Pritchett, K.; Hanson, Z. Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Muscle Soreness and Performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2020. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ismail, A.A.A.; Ismail, Y.; Ismail, A.A. Clinical assessment of magnesium status in the adult: An overview. In Magnesium in Human Health and Disease; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2013; ISBN 9781627030441.
Filippi, J.; Al-Jaouni, R.; Wiroth, J.B.; Hébuterne, X.; Schneider, S.M. Nutritional deficiencies in patients with Crohn's disease in remission. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2006,12,185-191. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Van Langenberg, D.; Della Gatta, P.; Warmington, S.A.; Kidgell, D.J.; Gibson, P.R.; Russell, A.P. Objectively measured muscle fatigue in Crohn's disease: Correlation with self-reported fatigue and associated factors for clinical application. J. Crohn's Coliti 2014, 8,137-146. [CrossRef]
Naser, S.A. Domino effect of hypomagnesemia on the innate immunity of Crohn's disease patients. World J. Diabetes 2014, 5, 527-535. [CrossRef]
Habtezion, A.; Silverberg, M.S.; Parkes, R.; Mikolainis, S.; Steinhart, A.H. Risk Factors for Low Bone Density in Crohn's Disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2002, 8, 87-92. [CrossRef]
Mukai, A.; Yamamoto, S.; Matsumura, K. Hypocalcemia secondary to hypomagnesemia in a patient with Crohn's disease. Clin. J. Gastroenterol. 2015, 8, 22-25. [CrossRef]
Taylor, L.; Almutairdi, A.; Shommu, N.; Fedorak, R.; Ghosh, S.; Reimer, R.A.; Panaccione, R.; Raman, M. Cross-Sectional Analysis of Overall Dietary Intake and Mediterranean Dietary Pattern in Patients with Crohn's Disease. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1761. [CrossRef]
Pierote, N.R.; Braz, A.F.; Barros, S.L.; Neto, Parente, Silva, Beserra, M.S.; Soares, N.R.M.; Marreiro, D.N.;
Nogueira, N.D.N. Effect of mineral status and glucocorticoid use on bone mineral density in patients with Crohn's disease. Nutrients 2018, 48,13-17. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Kruis, W.; Phuong Nguyen, G. Iron Deficiency, Zinc, Magnesium, Vitamin Deficiencies in Crohn's Disease: Substitute or Not? Dig. Dis. 2016, 34,105-111. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Weisshof, R.; Chermesh, I. Micronutrient deficiencies in inflammatory bowel disease. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2015,18, 576-581. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Balamtekin, N.; Aksoy, Ç.; Baysoy, G.; Uslu, N.; Demir, H.; Koksal, G.; Saltik-Temizel, I.N.; Ozen, H.; Gürakan, F.; Yüce, A. Is compliance with gluten-free diet sufficient? Diet composition of celiac patients. Turk. J. Pediatr. 2015, 57, 374. [PubMed]
Caruso, R.; Pallone, F.; Stasi, E.; Romeo, S.; Monteleone, G. Appropriate nutrient supplementation in celiac disease. Ann. Med. 2013, 45, 522-531. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Kupper, C. Dietary guidelines and implementation for celiac disease. Gastroenterology 2005,128, S121-S127. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Zanchi, C.; Di Leo, G.; Ronfani, L.; Martelossi, S.; Not, T.; Ventura, A. Bone Metabolism in Celiac Disease. J. Pediatr. 2008,153, 262-265. [CrossRef]
Martin, J.; Geisel, T.; Maresch, C.; Krieger, K.; Stein, J. Inadequate Nutrient Intake in Patients with Celiac Disease: Results from a German Dietary Survey. Digestion 2013, 87, 240-246. [CrossRef]
Fernández, C.B.; Varela-Moreiras, G.; Úbeda, N.; Alonso-Aperte, E. Nutritional Status in Spanish Children and Adolescents with Celiac Disease on a Gluten Free Diet Compared to Non-Celiac Disease Controls. Nutrients 2019,11, 2329. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Di Nardo, G.; Villa, M.P.; Conti, L.; Ranucci, G.; Pacchiarotti, C.; Principessa, L.; Raucci, U.; Parisi, P. Nutritional Deficiencies in Children with Celiac Disease Resulting from a Gluten-Free Diet: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2019,11,1588. [CrossRef]
González, T.; Larretxi, I.; Vitoria, J.C.; Castaño, L.; Simón, E.; Churruca, I.; Navarro, V.; Lasa, A. Celiac Male's Gluten-Free Diet Profile: Comparison to that of the Control Population and Celiac Women. Nutrients 2018,10,1713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Babio, N.; Alcázar, M.; Castillejo, G.; Recasens, M.; Martínez-Cerezo, F.; Gutiérrez-Pensado, V.; Masip, G.; Vaqué, C.; Vila-Martí, A.; Torres-Moreno, M.; et al. Patients With Celiac Disease Reported Higher Consumption of Added Sugar and Total Fat Than Healthy Individuals. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2017, 64, 63-69. [CrossRef]
Vici, G.; Belli, L.; Biondi, M.; Polzonetti, V. Gluten free diet and nutrient deficiencies: A review. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 35,1236-1241. [CrossRef]
Bascuñán, K.A.; Vespa, M.C.; Araya, M. Celiac disease: Understanding the gluten-free diet. Eur. J. Nutr. 2017, 56, 449-459. [CrossRef]
Barbagallo, M. Magnesium and type 2 diabetes. World J. Diabetes 2015, 6,1152-1157. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Chaudhary, D.P.; Sharma, R.; Bansal, D.D. Implications of Magnesium Deficiency in Type 2 Diabetes: A Review. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2009,134,119-129. [CrossRef]
Lopez-Ridaura, R.; Willett, W.C.; Rimm, E.B.; Liu, S.; Stampfer, M.J.; Manson, J.E.; Hu, F.B. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. Diabetes Care 2003, 27,134-140. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ramadass, S.; Basu, S.; Srinivasan, A. SERUM magnesium levels as an indicator of status of Diabetes Mellitus type 2. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev. 2015, 9, 42-45. [CrossRef]
Serefko, A.; Szopa, A.; Poleszak, E. Magnesium and depression. Magnes. Res. 2016, 29,112-119. [CrossRef]
Long, S.; Romani, A.M. Role of Cellular Magnesium in Human Diseases. Austin J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2014,2,1051.
Prior, P.L.; Vaz, M.J.; Ramos, A.C.; Galduróz, J.C.F. Influence of Microelement Concentration on the Intensity of Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol. 2015, 50,152-156. [CrossRef]
Grochowski, C.; Blicharska, E.; Baj, J.; Mierzwinska, A.; Brzozowska, K.; Forma, A.; Maciejewski, R. Serum iron, Magnesium, Copper, and Manganese Levels in Alcoholism: A Systematic Review. Molecules 2019,24,1361. [CrossRef]
Ismail, A.A.; Ismail, N.A. Magnesium: A Mineral Essential for Health Yet Generally Underestimated or Even Ignored. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2016, 6, 4. [CrossRef]
Marles, R.J. Mineral nutrient composition of vegetables, fruits and grains: The context of reports of apparent historical declines. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2017, 56, 93-103. [CrossRef]
Mayer, A. Historical changes in the mineral content of fruits and vegetables. Br. Food J. 1997, 99, 207-211. [CrossRef]
Cazzola, R.; Della Porta, M.; Manoni, M.; Iotti, S.; Pinotti, L.; Maier, J.A. Going to the roots of reduced magnesium dietary intake: A tradeoff between climate changes and sources. Heliyon 2020, 6, e05390. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Olza, J.; Aranceta-Bartrina, J.; Gonzalez-Gross, M.; Ortega, R.M.; Serra-Majem, L.; Varela-Moreiras, G.; Gil, A. Reported Dietary Intake, Disparity between the Reported Consumption and the Level Needed for Adequacy and Food Sources of Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium and Vitamin D in the Spanish Population: Findings from the ANIBES Study. Nutrients 2017, 9,168. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Wang, Z.; Hassan, M.U.; Nadeem, F.; Wu, L.; Zhang, F.; Li, X. Magnesium Fertilization Improves Crop Yield in Most Production Systems: A Meta-Analysis. Front. Plant Sci. 2020,10,1727. [CrossRef]
Bohn, T.; Walczyk, T.; Leisibach, S.; Hurrell, R. Chlorophyll-bound Magnesium in Commonly Consumed Vegetables and Fruits: Relevance to Magnesium Nutrition. J. Food Sci. 2006, 69, S347-S350. [CrossRef]
Guo, W.; Nazim, H.; Liang, Z.; Yang, D. Magnesium deficiency in plants: An urgent problem. Crop. J. 2016, 4, 83-91. [CrossRef]
Melse-Boonstra, A. Bioavailability of Micronutrients From Nutrient-Dense Whole Foods: Zooming in on Dairy, Vegetables, and Fruits. Front. Nutr. 2020, 7,101. [CrossRef]
Roe, M.; Bell, S.; Oseredczuk, M.; Christensen, T.; Westenbrink, S.; Pakkala, H.; Presser, K.; Finglas, P. Updated food composition database for nutrient intake. EFSA Support. Publ. 2013,10, 355E. [CrossRef]
Departamento de Agricultura de Estados Unidos (USDA). FoodData Central. 2019. Available online: https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ (accessed on 10 February 2021).
Ellam, S.; Williamson, G. Cocoa and Human Health. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2013, 33,105-128. [CrossRef]
Brink, E.J.; Beynen, A.C. Nutrition and magnesium absorption: A review. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci. 1992,16,125-162.
Schlemmer, U.; Frulich, W.; Prieto, R.M.; Grases, F. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: Food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, S330-S375. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lopez, H.W.; Krespine, V.; Guy, C.; Messager, A.; Demigne, C.; Remesy, C. Prolonged Fermentation of Whole Wheat Sourdough Reduces Phytate Level and Increases Soluble Magnesium. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 2657-2662. [CrossRef]
Lopez, H.W.; Leenhardt, F.; Coudray, C.; Remesy, C. Minerals and phytic acid interactions: Is it a real problem for human nutrition? Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2002, 37, 727-739. [CrossRef]
Gibson, R.; Dahdouh, S.; Grande, F.; Najera, S.; Fialon, M.; Vincent, A.; King, J.; Bailey, K.; Raboy, V.; Charrondiere, U.R. New phytate data collection: Implications for nutrient reference intakes for minerals, programmes and policies. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 71, 209-210.
Severo, J.S.; Morais, J.B.S.; De Freitas, T.E.C.; Cruz, K.J.C.; De Oliveira, A.R.S.; Poltronieri, F.; Marreiro, D.D.N. Metabolic and nutritional aspects of magnesium. Nutr. Clin. Diet. Hosp. 2015, 35, 67-74.
Vegarud, G.E.; Langsrud, T.; Svenning, C. Mineral-binding milk proteins and peptides; occurrence, biochemical and technological characteristics. Br. J. Nutr. 2000, 84, 91-98. [CrossRef]
Kitano, T.; Esashi, T.; Azami, S. Effect of protein intake on mineral (calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus) balance in Japanese males. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1988, 34, 387-398. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Whiting, S.J.; Kohrt, W.M.; Warren, M.P.; Kraenzlin, M.I.; Bonjour, J.-P. Food fortification for bone health in adulthood: A scoping review. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 70,1099-1105. [CrossRef]
Deng, X.; Song, Y.; Manson, J.E.; Signorello, L.B.; Zhang, S.M.; Shrubsole, M.J.; Ness, R.M.; Seidner, D.L.; Dai, Q. Magnesium, vitamin D status and mortality: Results from US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001 to 2006 and NHANES III. BMC Med. 2013,11,187. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bienkowski, P. Commentary on: Pouteau et al. Superiority of magnesium and vitamin B6 over magnesium alone on severe stress in healthy adults with low magnessemia: A randomized, single-blind clinical trial. PLoS ONE 2018,13, e0208454. [CrossRef]
Pouteau, E.; Kabir-Ahmadi, M.; Noah, L.; Mazur, A.; Dye, L.; Hellhammer, J.; Pickering, G.; DuBray, C. Superiority of combined magnesium (MG) and vitamin B6 (VITB6) supplementation over magnesium alone on severe stress in adults with low magnesemia: A randomised, single blind trial. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 37, S289-S290. [CrossRef]
Nielsen, F.H.; Milne, D.B. A moderately high intake compared to a low intake of zinc depresses magnesium balance and alters indices of bone turnover in postmenopausal women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 58, 703-710. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Johnson, S. The multifaceted and widespread pathology of magnesium deficiency. Med. Hypotheses 2001,56,163-170. [CrossRef]
Wallace, T.C. Combating COVID-19 and Building Immune Resilience: A Potential Role for Magnesium Nutrition? J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2020, 39, 685-693. [CrossRef]
Takahashi, Y.; Imaizumi, Y. Hardness in Drinking Water. Eisei Kagaku 1988, 34, 475-479. [CrossRef]
Van Der Aa, M. Classification of mineral water types and comparison with drinking water standards. Environ. Earth Sci. 2003, 44, 554-563. [CrossRef]
Maraver, F.; Vitoria, I.; Ferreira-Pego, C.; Armijo, F.; Salas-Salvado, J. Magnesium in tap and bottled mineral water in Spain and its contribution to nutritional recommendations. Nutr. Hosp. 2015, 31, 2297-2312. [PubMed]
Verhas, M.; De La Gueronniere, V.; Grognet, J.-M.; Paternot, J.; Hermanne, A.; Winkel, P.V.D.; Gheldof, R.; Martin, P.; Fantino, M.; Rayssiguier, Y. Magnesium bioavailability from mineral water. A study in adult men. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, 442-447. [CrossRef]
Sabatier, M.; Arnaud, M.J.; Kastenmayer, P.; Rytz, A.; Barclay, D.V. Meal effect on magnesium bioavailability from mineral water in healthy women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 65-71. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Dorea, J.G. Magnesium in Human Milk. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2000,19, 210-219. [CrossRef]
Yang, Z.; Huffman, S.L. Review of fortified food and beverage products for pregnant and lactating women and their impact on nutritional status. Matern. Child Nutr. 2011, 7,19-43. [CrossRef]
Reidy, K.C.; Bailey, R.L.; Deming, D.M.; O'Neill, L.; Carr, B.T.; Lesniauskas, R.; Johnson, W. Food Consumption Patterns and Micronutrient Density of Complementary Foods Consumed by Infants Fed Commercially Prepared Baby Foods. Nutr. Today 53, 68-78. [CrossRef]
Gillis, L.; Gillis, A. Nutrient Inadequacy in Obese and Non-Obese Youth. Can. J. Diet. Pract. Res. 2005, 66, 237-242. [CrossRef]
Poitevin, E. Determination of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, phosphorus, sodium, and zinc in fortified food products by microwave digestion and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry: Single-laboratory validation and ring tri. J. AOAC Int. 2012, 95,177-185. [CrossRef]
Food and Drug Administration. Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. Final rule. Fed. Regist. 2016, 81, 33741-37999.
Food and Drug Administration. Food Labeling: Serving Sizes of Foods That Can Reasonably Be Consumed at One Eating Occasion; Dual-Column Labeling; Updating, Modifying, and Establishing Certain Reference Amounts Customarily Consumed; Serving Size for Breath Mints; and Technical Amendmen. Fed. Regist. 2016, 81, 34000-34047.
Ates, M.; Kizildag, S.; Yuksel, O.; Hosgorler, F.; Yuce, Z.; Guvendi, G.; Kandis, S.; Karakilic, A.; Koc, B.; Uysal, N. Dose-Dependent Absorption Profile of Different Magnesium Compounds. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2019,192, 244-251. [CrossRef]
Schweigel, M.; Martens, H. Magnesium transport in the gastrointestinal tract. Front. Biosci. 2000, 3, D666-D677. [CrossRef]
Vormann, J. Magnesium: Nutrition and metabolism. Mol. Aspects Med. 2003, 24, 27-37. [CrossRef]
Vormann, J. Magnesium: Nutrition and Homoeostasis. AIMS Public Health 2016, 3, 329-340. [CrossRef]
Ranade, V.V.; Somberg, J.C. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Magnesium After Administration of Magnesium Salts to Humans. Am. J. Ther. 2001, 8, 345-357. [CrossRef]
Cosaro, E.; Bonafini, S.; Montagnana, M.; Danese, E.; Trettene, M.; Minuz, P.; Delva, P.; Fava, C. Effects of magnesium supplements on blood pressure, endothelial function and metabolic parameters in healthy young men with a family history of metabolic syndrome. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2014, 24,1213-1220. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Walker, A.F.; Marakis, G.; Christie, S.; Byng, M. Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study. Magnes. Res. 2003,16,183-191. [PubMed]
Uysal, N.; Kizildag, S.; Yuce, Z.; Guvendi, G.; Kandis, S.; Koc, B.; Karakilic, A.; Camsari, U.M.; Ates, M. Timeline (Bioavailability) of Magnesium Compounds in Hours: Which Magnesium Compound Works Best? Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2019, 187, 128-136. [CrossRef]
Coudray, C.; Rambeau, M.; Feillet-Coudray, C.; Gueux, E.; Tressol, J.C.; Mazur, A.; Rayssiguier, Y. Study of magnesium bioavailability from ten organic and inorganic Mg salts in Mg-depleted rats using a stable isotope approach. Magnes. Res. 2005, 18, 215-223.
Hillier, K. Magnesium Oxide. In xPharm: The Comprehensive Pharmacology Reference; Elsevier BV: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007.
Hunter, L.A.; Gibbins, K.J. Magnesium Sulfate: Past, Present, and Future. J. Midwifery Women's Heal. 2011,56, 566-574. [CrossRef]
Durlach, J.; Guiet-Bara, A.; Pagès, N.; Bac, P.; Bara, M. Magnesium chloride or magnesium sulfate: A genuine question. Magnes. Res. 2005,18,187-192. [PubMed]
EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA); Turck, D.; Castenmiller, J.; De Henauw, S.; Hirsch-Ernst, K.I.; Kearney, J.; Knutsen, H.K.; Maciuk, A.; Mangelsdorf, I.; McArdle, H.J.; et al. Magnesium citrate malate as a source of magnesium added for nutritional purposes to food supplements. EFSA J. 2018,16, e05484. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Tamai, I.; Senmaru, M.; Terasaki, T.; Tsuji, A. Na+- and Cl--Dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1995, 50,1783-1793. [CrossRef]
Tsuji, A.; Tamai, I. Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier. Single Mol. Single Cell Seq. 1996, 403, 385-391.
Covington, A.K.; Danish, E.Y. Measurement of Magnesium Stability Constants of Biologically Relevant Ligands by Simultaneous Use of pH and Ion-Selective Electrodes. J. Solut. Chem. 2009, 38,1449-1462. [CrossRef]
Farruggia, G.; Castiglioni, S.; Sargenti, A.; Marraccini, C.; Cazzaniga, A.; Merolle, L.; Iotti, S.; Cappadone, C.; Maier, J.A.M. Effects of supplementation with different Mg salts in cells: Is there a clue? Magnes. Res. 2014, 27, 25-34. [CrossRef]
Wang, R.; Chen, C.; Liu, W.; Zhou, T.; Xun, P.; He, K.; Chen, P. The effect of magnesium supplementation on muscle fitness: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Magnes. Res. 2017, 30,120-132. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Carpenter, T.O.; DeLucia, M.C.; Zhang, J.H.; Bejnerowicz, G.; Tartamella, L.; Dziura, J.; Petersen, K.F.; Befroy, D.; Cohen, D. A Randomized Controlled Study of Effects of Dietary Magnesium Oxide Supplementation on Bone Mineral Content in Healthy Girls. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 91, 4866-4872. [CrossRef]
Kunutsor, S.K.; Whitehouse, M.R.; Blom, A.W.; Laukkanen, J.A. Low serum magnesium levels are associated with increased risk of fractures: A long-term prospective cohort study. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2017, 32, 593-603. [CrossRef]
Musso, C.G. Magnesium metabolism in health and disease. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 2009, 41, 357-362. [CrossRef]
Nanduri, A.; Saleem, S.; Khalaf, M. Severe hypermagnesemia. Chest 2020,158, A1016. [CrossRef]
National Institutes of Health NIH Magnesium—Health Professional Fact Sheet. Fact Sheet Healyh Prof. 2018. Available online: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/ (accessed on 10 February 2021).
Moodie, E. Modern Trends in Animal Health and HUSBANDRY Hypocalcaemia and Hypomagnesaemia. Br. Vet. J. 1965,121, 338-349. [CrossRef]
Murphy, E. Mysteries of Magnesium Homeostasis. Circ. Res. 2000, 86, 245-248. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Romani, A.M.P. Magnesium in health and disease. Met. Ions Life Sci. 2013, 2013, 49-79.
Glasdam, S.M.; Glasdam, S.; Peters, G.H. The Importance of Magnesium in the Human Body: A Systematic Literature Review. Adv. Clin. Chem. 2016, 73,169-193. [PubMed]
Workinger, J.L.; Doyle, R.P.; Bortz, J. Challenges in the Diagnosis of Magnesium Status. Nutrients 2018,10,1202. [CrossRef]
Ismail, Y.; Ismail, A.A.; Ismail, A.A.A. The underestimated problem of using serum magnesium measurements to exclude magnesium deficiency in adults; A health warning is needed for "normal" results. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2010, 48, 323-327. [CrossRef]
Rylander, R.; Remer, T.; Berkemeyer, S.; Vormann, J. Acid-Base Status Affects Renal Magnesium Losses in Healthy, Elderly Persons. J. Nutr. 2006,136, 2374-2377. [CrossRef]
Lowik, M.R.; Van Dokkum, W.; Kistemaker, C.; Schaafsma, G.; Ockhuizen, T. Body composition, health status and urinary magnesium excretion among elderly people (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System). Magnes. Res. 1993, 6, 223-232. [PubMed]
Ware, E.B.; Smith, J.A.; Zhao, W.; Ganesvoort, R.T.; Curhan, G.C.; Pollak, M.; Mount, D.B.; Turner, S.T.; Chen, G.; Shah, R.J.; et al. Genome-wide Association Study of 24-Hour Urinary Excretion of Calcium, Magnesium, and Uric Acid. Mayo Clin. Proc. Innov. Qual. Outcomes 2019, 3, 448-460. [CrossRef]
Gant, C.M.; Soedamah-Muthu, S.S.; Binnenmars, S.H.; Bakker, S.J.L.; Navis, G.; Laverman, G.D. Higher Dietary Magnesium Intake and Higher Magnesium Status Are Associated with Lower Prevalence of Coronary Heart Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. Nutrients 2018,10, 307. [CrossRef]
Xu, B.; Sun, J.; Deng, X.; Huang, X.; Sun, W.; Xu, Y.; Xu, M.; Lu, J.; Bi, Y. Low Serum Magnesium Level Is Associated with Microalbuminuria in Chinese Diabetic Patients. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2013, 2013,1-6. [CrossRef]
Suliburska, J.; Bogdanski, P.; Szulinska, M.; Pupek-Musialik, D. Short-Term Effects of Sibutramine on Mineral Status and Selected Biochemical Parameters in Obese Women. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2012,149,163-170. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Haigney, M.C.; Silver, B.; Tanglao, E.; Silverman, H.S.; Hill, J.D.; Shapiro, E.; Gerstenblith, G.; Schulman, S.P. Noninvasive Measurement of Tissue Magnesium and Correlation With Cardiac Levels. Circulation 1995, 92, 2190-2197. [CrossRef]
Shechter, M.; Sharir, M.; Paul, M.J.; James, L.; Burton, F.; Noel, S.C.; Merz, B. Oral magnesium therapy improves endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 2000,102, 2353-2358. [CrossRef]
Silver, B.B. Development of Cellular Magnesium Nano-Analysis in Treatment of Clinical Magnesium Deficiency. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 23, 732S-737S. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Cameron, D.; Welch, A.A.; Adelnia, F.; Bergeron, C.M.; Reiter, D.A.; Dominguez, L.J.; Brennan, N.A.; Fishbein, K.W.; Spencer, R.G.; Ferrucci, L. Age and Muscle Function Are More Closely Associated With Intracellular Magnesium, as Assessed by 31P Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Than With Serum Magnesium. Front. Physiol. 2019,10,1454. [CrossRef]
Iotti, S.; Malucelli, E. In vivo assessment of Mg2+ in human brain and skeletal muscle by 31P-MRS. Magnes. Res. 2008, 21,157-162.
McCully, K.K.; Turner, T.N.; Langley, J.; Zhao, Q. The reproducibility of measurements of intramuscular magnesium concentrations and muscle oxidative capacity using 31P MRS. Dyn. Med. 2009, 8, 5. [CrossRef]
Malucelli, E.; Lodi, R.; Martinuzzi, A.; Tonon, C.; Barbiroli, B.; Iotti, S. Free Mg2+ concentration in the calf muscle of glycogen phosphorylase and phosphofructokinase deficiency patients assessed in different metabolic conditions by 31P MRS. Dyn. Med. 4, 7. [CrossRef]
Pironi, L.; Malucelli, E.; Guidetti, M.; Lanzoni, E.; Farruggia, G.; Pinna, A.D.; Barbiroli, B.; Iotti, S. The complex relationship between magnesium and serum parathyroid hormone: A study in patients with chronic intestinal failure. Magnes. Res. 2009,22, 37-43. [CrossRef]
Nelander, M.; Weis, J.; Bergman, L.; Larsson, A.; Wikstrom, A.K.; Wikstrom, J. Cerebral magnesium levels in preeclampsia; A phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Am. J. Hypertens. 2017, 30, 667-672. [CrossRef]
Mairiang, E.; Hanpanich, P.; Sriboonlue, P. In vivo 31P-MRS assessment of muscle-pH, cytolsolic-[Mg2+] and phosphorylation potential after supplementing hypokaliuric renal stone patients with potassium and magnesium salts. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2004, 22, 715-719. [CrossRef]
Reyngoudt, H.; Kolkovsky, A.L.L.; Carlier, P.G. Free intramuscular Mg2+ concentration calculated using both31P and1H NMRS- based pH in the skeletal muscle of Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients. NMR Biomed. 2019, 32, e4115. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Schutten, J.C.; Gomes-Neto, A.W.; Navis, G.; Gansevoort, R.T.; Dullaart, R.P.F.; Kootstra-Ros, J.E.; Danel, R.M.; Goorman, F.; Gans, R.O.B.; De Borst, M.H.; et al. Lower Plasma Magnesium, Measured by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, is Associated with Increased Risk of Developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women: Results from a Dutch Prospective Cohort Study. J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8,169. [CrossRef]
Lutz, N.W.; Bernard, M. Multiparametric quantification of heterogeneity of metal ion concentrations, as demonstrated for [Mg2+] by way of 31P MRS. J. Magn. Reson. 2018,294, 71-82. [CrossRef]
Lopez-Pedrouso, M.; Lorenzo, J.M.; Zapata, C.; Franco, D. Proteins and amino acids. In Innovative Thermal and Non-Thermal Processing; Barba, F.J., Saraiba, J.M.A., Cravotto, G., Lorenzo, J.M., Eds.; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 139-168. ISBN 9781469816593.
Christian, G.D. Medicine, trace elements, and atomic absorption spectroscopy. Anal. Chem. 1969, 41, 24A-40A. [CrossRef]
DiPietro, E.; Bashor, M.; Stroud, P.; Smarr, B.; Burgess, B.; Turner, W.; Neese, J. Comparison of an inductively coupled plasma- atomic emission spectrometry method for the determination of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, copper and zinc with atomic absorption spectroscopy and flame photometry methods. Sci. Total Environ. 1988, 74, 249-262. [CrossRef]
Ugurlu, V.; Binay, .; Simsek, E.; Bal, C. Cellular Trace Element Changes in Type 1 Diabetes Patients. J. Clin. Res. Pediatr. Endocrinol. 2016, 8,180-186. [CrossRef]
Millart, H.; Durlach, V.; Durlach, J. Red blood cell magnesium concentrations: Analytical problems and significance. Magnes. Res. 1995, 8, 65-76.
Tashiro, M.; Inoue, H.; Konishi, M. Magnesium Homeostasis in Cardiac Myocytes of Mg-Deficient Rats. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e73171. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Schilling, K.; Larner, F.; Saad, A.; Roberts, R.; Kocher, H.M.; Blyuss, O.; Halliday, A.N.; Crnogorac-Jurcevic, T. Urine metallomics signature as an indicator of pancreatic cancer. Metallomics 2020,12, 752-757. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ma, J.; Yan, L.; Guo, T.; Yang, S.; Liu, Y.; Xie, Q.; Ni, D.; Wang, J. Association between Serum Essential Metal Elements and the Risk of Schizophrenia in China. Sci. Rep. 2020,10,10875. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Günzel, D.; Schlue, W.-R. Determination of [Mg2+]i—An update on the use of Mg2+-selective electrodes. BioMetals 2002, 15, 237-249. [CrossRef]
Kamochi, M.; Aibara, K.; Nakata, K.; Murakami, M.; Nandate, K.; Sakamoto, H.; Sata, T.; Shigematsu, A. Profound ionized hypomagnesemia induced by therapeutic plasma exchange in liver failure patients. Transfusion 2002, 42,1598-1602. [CrossRef]
Fu, C.-Y.; Chen, S.-J.; Cai, N.-H.; Liu, Z.-H.; Zhang, M.; Wang, P.-C.; Zhao, J.-N. Increased risk of post-stroke epilepsy in Chinese patients with a TRPM6 polymorphism. Neurol. Res. 2019, 41, 378-383. [CrossRef]
Ordak, M.; Maj-Zurawska, M.; Matsumoto, H.; Bujalska-Zadrozny, M.; Kieres-Salomonski, I.; Nasierowski, T.; Muszynska, E.; Wojnar, M. Ionized magnesium in plasma and erythrocytes for the assessment of low magnesium status in alcohol dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017,178, 271-276. [CrossRef]
International Federation of Clinica Ben Rayana; Burnett, R.W.; Covington, A.K.; D'Orazio, P.; Fogh-Andersen, N.; Jacobs, E.; Külpmann, W.R.; Kuwa, K.; Larsson, L.; Lewenstam, A.; et al. IFCC Guideline for sampling, measuring and reporting ionized magnesium in plasma. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2008, 46, 21-26. [CrossRef]
Maj-Zurawska, M.; Lewenstam, A. Selectivity coefficients of ion-selective magnesium electrodes used for simultaneous determination of magnesium and calcium ions. Talanta 2011, 87, 295-301. [CrossRef]
Lvova, L.; Gonçalves, C.G.; Di Natale, C.; Legin, A.; Kirsanov, D.; Paolesse, R. Recent advances in magnesium assessment: From single selective sensors to multisensory approach. Talanta 2018,179, 430-441. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lindstrom, F.; Diehl, H. Indicator for the Titration of Calcium Plus Magnesium with (Ethylenedinitrilo)tetraacetate. Anal. Chem. 1960, 32,1123-1127. [CrossRef]
Abernethy, M.H.; Fowler, R.T. Micellar improvement of the calmagite compleximetric measurement of magnesium in plasma. Clin. Chem. 1982,28, 520-522. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Malucelli, E.; Procopio, A.; Fratini, M.; Gianoncelli, A.; Notargiacomo, A.; Merolle, L.; Sargenti, A.; Castiglioni, S.; Cappadone, C.; Farruggia, G.; et al. Single cell versus large population analysis: Cell variability in elemental intracellular concentration and distribution. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2018, 410, 337-348. [CrossRef]
Chromy, V.; Svoboda, V.; Stepanova, I. Spectrophotometric determination of magnesium in biological fluids with xylidyl blue II. Biochem. Med. 1973, 7, 208-217. [CrossRef]
Wimmer, M.C.; Artiss, J.D.; Zak, B. A kinetic colorimetric procedure for quantifying magnesium in serum. Clin. Chem. 1986, 32, 629-632. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Trapani, V.; Schweigel-Rontgen, M.; Cittadini, A.; Wolf, F.I. Intracellular Magnesium Detection by Fluorescent Indicators. Methods Enzymol. 2012, 505, 421-444. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Liu, M.; Yu, X.; Li, M.; Liao, N.; Bi, A.; Jiang, Y.; Liu, S.; Gong, Z.; Zeng, W. Fluorescent probes for the detection of magnesium ions (Mg2+): From design to application. RSC Adv. 2018, 8,12573-12587. [CrossRef]
Picone, G.; Cappadone, C.; Farruggia, G.; Malucelli, E.; Iotti, S. The assessment of intracellular magnesium: Different strategies to answer different questions. Magnes. Res. 2020, 33,1-11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Suzuki, Y.; Komatsu, H.; Ikeda, T.; Saito, N.; Araki, S.; Citterio, D.; Hisamoto, H.; Kitamura, Y.; Kubota, T.; Nakagawa, J.; et al. Design and Synthesis of Mg2+-Selective Fluoroionophores Based on a Coumarin Derivative and Application for Mg2+ Measurement in a Living Cell. Anal. Chem. 2002, 74,1423-1428. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Komatsu, H.; Iwasawa, N.; Citterio, D.; Suzuki, Y.; Kubota, T.; Tokuno, K.; Kitamura, Y.; Oka, K.; Suzuki, K. Design and Synthesis of Highly Sensitive and Selective Fluorescein-Derived Magnesium Fluorescent Probes and Application to Intracellular 3D Mg2+ Imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004,126,16353-16360. [CrossRef]
Suzuki, Y.; Yokoyama, K. Development of Functional Fluorescent Molecular Probes for the Detection of Biological Substances. Biosensors 2015, 5, 337-363. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lin, Q.; Buccella, D. Highly selective, red emitting BODIPY-based fluorescent indicators for intracellular Mg2+ imaging. J. Mater. Chem. B 2018, 6, 7247-7256. [CrossRef]
Gruskos, J.J.; Zhang, G.; Buccella, D. Visualizing Compartmentalized Cellular Mg2+ on Demand with Small-Molecule Fluorescent Sensors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016,138,14639-14649. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Fujii, T.; Shindo, Y.; Hotta, K.; Citterio, D.; Nishiyama, S.; Suzuki, K.; Oka, K. Design and synthesis of a FlAsH-type Mg2+ fluorescent probe for specific protein labeling. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014,136, 2374-2381. [CrossRef]
Farruggia, G.; Iotti, S.; Prodi, L.; Montalti, M.; Zaccheroni, N.; Savage, P.B.; Trapani, V.; Sale, P.; Wolf, F.I. 8-Hydroxyquinoline derivatives as fluorescent sensors for magnesium in living cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006,128, 344-350. [CrossRef]
Farruggia, G.; Iotti, S.; Prodi, L.; Zaccheroni, N.; Montalti, M.; Savage, P.B.; Andreani, G.; Trapani, V.; Wolf, F.I. A Simple Spectrofluorometric Assay to Measure Total Intracellular Magnesium by a Hydroxyquinoline Derivative. J. Fluoresc. 2009,19, 11-19. [CrossRef]
Farruggia, G.; Iotti, S.; Lombardo, M.; Marraccini, C.; Petruzziello, D.; Prodi, L.; Sgarzi, M.; Trombini, C.; Zaccheroni, N. Microwave Assisted Synthesis of a Small Library of SubstitutedN,N,-Bis((8-hydroxy-7-quinolinyl)methyl)-1,10-diaza-18-crown-6 Ethers. J. Org. Chem. 2010, 75, 6275-6278. [CrossRef]
Sargenti, A.; Farruggia, G.; Zaccheroni, N.; Marraccini, C.; Sgarzi, M.; Cappadone, C.; Malucelli, E.; Procopio, A.; Prodi, L.; Lombardo, M.; et al. Synthesis of a highly Mg2+-selective fluorescent probe and its application to quantifying and imaging total intracellular magnesium. Nat. Protoc. 2017,12, 461-471. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sargenti, A.; Farruggia, G.; Malucelli, E.; Cappadone, C.; Merolle, L.; Marraccini, C.; Andreani, G.; Prodi, L.; Zaccheroni, N.; Sgarzi, M.; et al. A novel fluorescent chemosensor allows the assessment of intracellular total magnesium in small samples. Analyst 2014,139,1201-1207. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Merolle, L.; Sponder, G.; Sargenti, A.; Mastrototaro, L.; Cappadone, C.; Farruggia, G.; Procopio, A.; Malucelli, E.; Parisse, P.; Gianoncelli, A.; et al. Overexpression of the mitochondrial Mg channel MRS2 increases total cellular Mg concentration and influences sensitivity to apoptosis. Metallomics 2018,10, 917-928. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Yadav, N.; Kumar, R.; Singh, A.K.; Mohiyuddin, S.; Gopinath, P. Systematic approach of chromone skeleton for detecting Mg2+, ion: Applications for sustainable cytotoxicity and cell imaging possibilities. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2020, 235,118290. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Decelle, J.; Veronesi, G.; Gallet, B.; Stryhanyuk, H.; Benettoni, P.; Schmidt, M.; Tucoulou, R.; Passarelli, M.; Bohic, S.; Clode, P.; et al. Subcellular Chemical Imaging: New Avenues in Cell Biology. Trends Cell Biol. 2020, 30,173-188. [CrossRef]
De Santis, S.; Sotgiu, G.; Crescenzi, A.; Taffon, C.; Felici, A.C.; Orsini, M. On the chemical composition of psammoma bodies microcalcifications in thyroid cancer tissues. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2020,190,113534. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Picone, G.; Cappadone, C.; Pasini, A.; Lovecchio, J.; Cortesi, M.; Farruggia, G.; Lombardo, M.; Gianoncelli, A.; Mancini, L.; Ralf, H.M.; et al. Analysis of Intracellular Magnesium and Mineral Depositions during Osteogenic Commitment of 3D Cultured Saos2 Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 2368. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Zghoul, N.; Alam-Eldin, N.; Mak, I.T.; Silver, B.; Weglicki, W.B. Hypomagnesemia in diabetes patients: Comparison of serum and intracellular measurement of responses to magnesium supplementation and its role in inflammation. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes. Targets Ther. 2018,11, 389-400. [CrossRef]
Becker, R.A.; Cluff, K.; Duraisamy, N.; Casale, G.P.; Pipinos, I.I. Analysis of ischemic muscle in patients with peripheral artery disease using X-ray spectroscopy. J. Surg. Res. 2017,220, 79-87. [CrossRef]
Malucelli, E.; Iotti, S.; Gianoncelli, A.; Fratini, M.; Merolle, L.; Notargiacomo, A.; Marraccini, C.; Sargenti, A.; Cappadone, C.; Farruggia, G.; et al. Quantitative Chemical Imaging of the Intracellular Spatial Distribution of Fundamental Elements and Light Metals in Single Cells. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86, 5108-5115. [CrossRef]
Hughes, D. Chapter 49 Cultural Influences on Medical Knowledge. In Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine; Schramme, T., Edwards, S., Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 1-18.
Pradelli, L.; Ghetti, G. A general model for the estimation of societal costs of lost production and informal care in Italy. Farmeconomia. Health Econ. Ther. Pathw. 2017,18, A365.
Yang, W.; Dall, T.M.; Beronjia, K.; Lin, J.; Semilla, A.P.; Chakrabarti, R.; Hogan, P.F.; Petersen, M.P. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2017. Diabetes Care 2018, 41, 917-928.
Deuschl, G.; Beghi, E.; Fazekas, F.; Varga, T.; Christoforidi, K.A.; Sipido, E.; Bassetti, C.L.; Vos, T.; Feigin, V.L. The burden of neurological diseases in Europe: An analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Public Health 2020, 5, e551-e567. [CrossRef]
Cruz, K.J.C.; De Oliveira, A.R.S.; Pinto, D.P.; Morais, J.B.S.; Lima, F.D.S.; Colli, C.; Torres-Leal, F.L.; Marreiro, D.D.N. Influence of Magnesium on Insulin Resistance in Obese Women. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2014,160, 305-310. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Günther, T. The biochemical function of Mg2+ in insulin secretion, insulin signal transduction and insulin resistance. Magnes. Res. 2010, 23, 5-18. [CrossRef]
Castellanos-Gutiérrez, A.; Sánchez-Pimienta, T.G.; Carriquiry, A.; Da Costa, T.H.M.; Ariza, A.C. Higher dietary magnesium intake is associated with lower body mass index, waist circumference and serum glucose in Mexican adults. Nutr. J. 2018,17,114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Rodríguez-Morán, M.; Mendía, L.E.S.; Galván, G.Z.; Guerrero-Romero, F. The role of magnesium in type 2 diabetes: A brief based-clinical review. Magnes. Res. 2011,24,156-162. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Palmer, B.F.; Clegg, D.J. Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disturbances in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 373, 548-559. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Larsson, S.C.; Wolk, A. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. J. Intern. Med. 2007, 262, 208-214. [CrossRef]
Schulze, M.B.; Schulz, M.; Heidemann, C.; Schienkiewitz, A.; Hoffmann, K.; Boeing, H. Fiber and magnesium intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes: A prospective study and meta-analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 2007,167, 956-965. [CrossRef]
Dong, J.Y.; Xun, P.; He, K.; Qin, L.Q. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Care 2011, 34, 2116-2122. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Hruby, A.; Meigs, J.B.; O'Donnell, C.J.; Jacques, P.F.; McKeown, N.M. Higher Magnesium Intake Reduces Risk of Impaired Glucose and Insulin Metabolism and Progression From Prediabetes to Diabetes in Middle-Aged Americans. Diabetes Care 2013, 37, 419-427. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Guerreroromero, F.; Simentalmendia, L.E.; Hernández-Ronquillo, G.; Rodriguezmoran, M. Oral magnesium supplementation improves glycaemic status in subjects with prediabetes and hypomagnesaemia: A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial. Diabetes Metab. 2015, 41, 202-207. [CrossRef]
Zhao, B.; Deng, H.; Li, B.; Chen, L.; Zou, F.; Hu, L.; Wei, Y.; Zhang, W. Association of magnesium consumption with type 2 diabetes and glucose metabolism: A systematic review and pooled study with trial sequential analysis. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 2020, 36, e3243. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lin, C.-C.; Huang, Y.-L. Chromium, zinc and magnesium status in type 1 diabetes. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2015,18, 588-592. [CrossRef]
Sozen, T.; Ozisik, L.; Basaran, N.C. An overview and management of osteoporosis. Eur. J. Rheumatol. 2017, 4, 46-56. [CrossRef]
Abraham, G.E.; Grewal, H. A total dietary program emphasizing magnesium instead of calcium. Effect on the mineral density of calcaneous bone in postmenopausal women on hormonal therapy. J. Reprod. Med. 1990, 35, 503-507.
Stendig-Lindberg, G.; Tepper, R.; Leichter, I. Trabecular bone density in a two year controlled trial of peroral magnesium in osteoporosis. Magnes. Res. 1993, 6,155-163.
Aydin, H.; Deyneli, O.; Yavuz, D.; Gozu, H.; Mutlu, N.; Kaygusuz, I.; Akalin, S.; Kaygusuz, I. Short-Term Oral Magnesium Supplementation Suppresses Bone Turnover in Postmenopausal Osteoporotic Women. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2009,133,136-143. [CrossRef]
Tucker, K.L.; Hannan, M.T.; Chen, H.; Cupples, L.A.; Wilson, P.W.; Kiel, D.P. Potassium, magnesium, and fruit and vegetable intakes are associated with greater bone mineral density in elderly men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 69, 727-736. [CrossRef]
Mederle, O.A.; Balas, M.; Ioanoviciu, S.D.; Gurban, C.-V.; Tudor, A.; Borza, C. Correlations between bone turnover markers, serum magnesium and bone mass density in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Clin. Interv. Aging 2018,13,1383-1389. [CrossRef]
Farsinejad-Marj, M.; Saneei, P.; Esmaillzadeh, A. Dietary magnesium intake, bone mineral density and risk of fracture: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoporos. Int. 2016,27,1389-1399. [CrossRef]
Orchard, T.S.; Larson, J.C.; Alghothani, N.; Bout-Tabaku, S.; Cauley, J.A.; Chen, Z.; Lacroix, A.Z.; Wactawski-Wende, J.; Jackson, R.D. Magnesium intake, bone mineral density, and fractures: Results from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 99, 926-933. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Veronese, N.; Stubbs, B.; Solmi, M.; Noale, M.; Vaona, A.; Demurtas, J.; Maggi, S. Dietary magnesium intake and fracture risk: Data from a large prospective study. Br. J. Nutr. 2017,117,1570-1576. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Welch, A.A.; Skinner, J.; Hickson, M. Dietary Magnesium May Be Protective for Aging of Bone and Skeletal Muscle in Middle and Younger Older Age Men and Women: Cross-Sectional Findings from the UK Biobank Cohort. Nutrients 2017, 9,1189. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Da Cunha, M.M.L.; Trepout, S.; Messaoudi, C.; Wu, T.-D.; Ortega, R.; Guerquin-Kern, J.-L.; Marco, S. Overview of chemical imaging methods to address biological questions. Micron 2016, 84, 23-36. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Rosique-Esteban, N.; Guasch-Ferre, M.; Hernandez-Alonso, P.; Salas-Salvado, J. Dietary Magnesium and Cardiovascular Disease: A Review with Emphasis in Epidemiological Studies. Nutrients 2018,10,168. [CrossRef]
Rosanoff, A. Magnesium and hypertension. Clin. Calcium 2005,15, 255-260.
Touyz, R.M.; Milne, F.J.; Reinach, S.G. Intracellular Mg2+, Ca2+, Na2+ and K+ in platelets and erythrocytes of essential hypertension patients: Relation to blood pressure. Clin. Exp. Hypertens. Part A Theory Pract. 1992,14,1189-1209. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Dickinson, H.O.; Nicolson, D.; Campbell, F.; Cook, J.V.; Beyer, F.R.; Ford, G.A.; Mason, J. Magnesium supplementation for the management of primary hypertension in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2006, 2006, CD004640. [CrossRef]
Kass, L.S.; Weekes, J.; Carpenter, L.W. Effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: A meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 66, 411-418. [CrossRef]
Fang, X.; Han, H.; Li, M.; Liang, C.; Fan, Z.; Aaseth, J.; He, J.; Montgomery, S.; Cao, Y. Dose-Response Relationship between Dietary Magnesium Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. Nutrients 2016, 8, 739. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Dibaba, D.T.; Xun, P.; Song, Y.; Rosanoff, A.; Shechter, M.; He, K. The effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure in individuals with insulin resistance, prediabetes, or noncommunicable chronic diseases: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017,106, 921-929. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Del Gobbo, L.C.; Imamura, F.; Wu, J.H.Y.; Otto, M.C.D.O.; Chiuve, S.E.; Mozaffarian, D. Circulating and dietary magnesium and risk of cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98,160-173. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Stepura, O.B.; Martynow, A.I. Magnesium orotate in severe congestive heart failure (MACH). Int. J. Cardiol. 2009,131, 293-295. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Vierling, W.; Liebscher, D.H.; Micke, O.; Von Ehrlich, B.; Kisters, K. Magnesium deficiency and therapy in cardiac arrhythmias: Recommendations of the German Society for Magnesium Research. DMW—Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 2013,138,1165-1171.
Drew, B.J.; Ackerman, M.J.; Funk, M.; Gibler, W.B.; Kligfield, P.; Menon, V.; Philippides, G.J.; Roden, D.M.; Zareba, W. Prevention of Torsade de Pointes in Hospital Settings. Circulationa 2010,121,1047-1060. [CrossRef]
Ferre, S.; Baldoli, E.; Leidi, M.; Maier, J.A. Magnesium deficiency promotes a pro-atherogenic phenotype in cultured human endothelial cells via activation of NFkB. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2010,1802, 952-958. [CrossRef]
Peacock, J.M.; Ohira, T.; Post, W.; Sotoodehnia, N.; Rosamond, W.; Folsom, A.R. Serum magnesium and risk of sudden cardiac death in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am. Heart J. 2010,160, 464-470. [CrossRef]
Joosten, M.M.; Gansevoort, R.T.; Mukamal, K.J.; Van Der Harst, P.; Geleijnse, J.M.; Feskens, Navis, G.; Bakker, S.J.L.; The PREVEND Study Group. Urinary and plasma magnesium and risk of ischemic heart disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 97, 1299-1306. [CrossRef]
Cronin, K.A.; Lake, A.J.; Scott, S.; Sherman, R.L.; Noone, A.M.; Howlader, N.; Henley, S.J.; Anderson, R.N.; Firth, A.U.; Ma, J.; et al. Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, part I: National cancer statistics. Cancer 2018,124, 2785-2800. [CrossRef]
Workeneh, B.T.; Uppal, N.N.; Jhaveri, K.D.; Rondon-Berrios, H. Hypomagnesemia in the Cancer Patient. Kidney360 2021, 2, 154-166. [CrossRef]
Gray, A.; Dang, B.N.; Moore, T.B.; Clemens, R.; Pressman, P. A review of nutrition and dietary interventions in oncology. SAGE Open Med. 2020, 8, 2050312120926877. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Hsieh, M.-C.; Wu, C.-F.; Chen, C.-W.; Shi, C.-S.; Huang, W.-S.; Kuan, F.-C. Hypomagnesemia and clinical benefits of anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies in wild-type KRAS metastatic colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2047. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Blaszczyk, U.; Duda-Chodak, A. Magnesium: Its role in nutrition and carcinogenesis. Rocz. Panstwowego Zaktadu Hig. 2013, 64, 3.
Tao, M.; Dai, Q.; Millen, A.E.; Nie, J.; Edge, S.B.; Trevisan, M.; Shields, P.G.; Freudenheim, J. Abstract 884: Associations of intakes of magnesium and calcium and survival among women with breast cancer: Results from Western New York Exposures and Breast Cancer (WEB) Study. Epidemiology 2015, 75, 884. [CrossRef]
Huang, W.-Q.; Long, W.-Q.; Mo, X.-F.; Zhang, N.-Q.; Luo, H.; Lin, F.-Y.; Huang, J.; Zhang, C.-X. Direct and indirect associations between dietary magnesium intake and breast cancer risk. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 5764. [CrossRef]
Liu, M.; Yang, H.; Mao, Y. Magnesium and liver disease. Ann. Transl. Med. 2019, 7, 578. [CrossRef]
Liu, Y.; Li, X.; Zou, Q.; Liu, L.; Zhu, X.; Jia, Q.; Wang, L.; Yan, R. Inhibitory effect of magnesium cantharidate on human hepatoma SMMC-7721 cell proliferation by blocking MAPK signaling pathway. Chin. J. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 2017, 33, 347-351.
Liu, Y.; Xu, Y.; Ma, H.; Wang, B.; Xu, L.; Zhang, H.; Song, X.; Gao, L.; Liang, X.; Ma, C. Hepatitis B virus X protein amplifies TGF-fi promotion on HCC motility through down-regulating PPM1a. Oncotarget 2016, 7, 33125. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Wesselink, E.; Kok, D.E.; Bours, M.J.L.; De Wilt, J.H.W.; Van Baar, H.; Van Zutphen, M.; Geijsen, A.M.J.R.; Keulen, E.T.P.; Hansson, B.M.E.; Ouweland, J.V.D.; et al. Vitamin D, magnesium, calcium, and their interaction in relation to colorectal cancer recurrence and all-cause mortality. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2020,111,1007-1017. [CrossRef]
Dai, Q.; Shu, X.-O.; Deng, X.; Xiang, Y.-B.; Li, H.; Yang, G.; Shrubsole, M.J.; Ji, B.; Cai, H.; Chow, W.-H.; et al. Modifying effect of calcium/magnesium intake ratio and mortality: A population-based cohort study. BMJ Open 2013, 3, e002111. [CrossRef]
Wark, P.A.; Lau, R.; Norat, T.; Kampman, E. Magnesium intake and colorectal tumor risk: A case-control study and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 96, 622-631. [CrossRef]
Sun, Y.; Selvaraj, S.; Varma, A.; Derry, S.; Sahmoun, A.E.; Singh, B.B. Increase in Serum Ca2+/Mg2+ Ratio Promotes Proliferation of Prostate Cancer Cells by Activating TRPM7 Channels. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288, 255-263. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Steck, S.E.; Omofuma, O.O.; Su, L.J.; Maise, A.A.; Woloszynska-Read, A.; Johnson, C.S.; Zhang, H.; Bensen, J.T.; Fontham, E.T.H.; Mohler, J.L.; et al. Calcium, magnesium, and whole-milk intakes and high-aggressive prostate cancer in the North Carolina-Louisiana Prostate Cancer Project (PCaP). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018,107, 799-807. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sahmoun, A.E.; Singh, B.B. Does a higher ratio of serum calcium to magnesium increase the risk for postmenopausal breast cancer? Med. Hypotheses 2010, 75, 315-318. [CrossRef]
Kumar, G.; Chatterjee, P.K.; Madankumar, S.; Mehdi, S.F.; Xue, X.; Metz, C.N. Magnesium deficiency with high calcium-to- magnesium ratio promotes a metastatic phenotype in the CT26 colon cancer cell line. Magnes. Res. 2020, 33, 68-85. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ma, E.; Sasazuki, S.; Inoue, M.; Iwasaki, M.; Sawada, N.; Takachi, R.; Tsugane, S.; Members of the JPHC Study Group. High Dietary Intake of Magnesium May Decrease Risk of Colorectal Cancer in Japanese Men. J. Nutr. 2010,140, 779-785. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Folsom, A.R.; Hong, C.-P. Magnesium Intake and Reduced Risk of Colon Cancer in a Prospective Study of Women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005,163, 232-235. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Brandt, P.A.V.D.; Smits, K.M.; Goldbohm, R.A.; Weijenberg, M.P. Magnesium intake and colorectal cancer risk in the Netherlands Cohort Study. Br. J. Cancer 2007, 96, 510-513. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Mahabir, S.; Wei, Q.; Barrera, S.L.; Dong, Y.Q.; Etzel, C.J.; Spitz, M.R.; Forman, M.R. Dietary magnesium and DNA repair capacity as risk factors for lung cancer. Carcinogenesis 2008, 29, 949-956. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Jansen, R.J.; Robinson, D.P.; Stolzenberg-Solomon, R.Z.; Bamlet, W.R.; De Andrade, M.; Oberg, A.L.; Rabe, K.G.; Anderson, K.E.; Olson, J.E.; Sinha, R.; et al. Nutrients from Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Reduce the Risk of Pancreatic Cancer. J. Gastrointest. Cancer 2012, 44,152-161. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Dibaba, D.; Xun, P.; Yokota, K.; White, E.; He, K. Magnesium intake and incidence of pancreatic cancer: The VITamins and Lifestyle study. Br. J. Cancer 2015,113,1615-1621. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ravell, J.C.; Chauvin, S.D.; He, T.; Lenardo, M. An Update on XMEN Disease. J. Clin. Immunol. 2020, 40, 671-681. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Afridi, H.I.; Kazi, T.G.; Talpur, F.N. Correlation of Calcium and Magnesium Levels in the Biological Samples of Different Types of Acute Leukemia Children. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2018,186, 395-406. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Slahin, G.; Ertem, U.; Duru, F.; Birgen, D.; Yuuksek, N. High Prevelance of Chronic Magnesium Deficiency in T Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Chronic Zinc Deficiency in Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Malignant Lymphoma. Leuk. Lymphoma 2000, 39, 555-562. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sikora, P.; Borzecka, H.; Kollataj, B.; Majewski, M.; Wieczorkiewicz-Plaza, A.; Zajaczkowska, M. The diagnosis of familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis in a girl with acute lymphoblastic leukemia—Case report. Pol. Merkur. Lek. 2006,118, 430-432.
Canbolat, O.; Kavutcu, M.; Durak, I. Magnesium contents of leukemic lymphocytes. BioMetals 1994, 7, 313-315. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Atkinson, S.A.; Halton, J.M.; Bradley, C.; Wu, B.; Barr, R.D. Bone and mineral abnormalities in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Influence of disease, drugs and nutrition. Int. J. Cancer 1998, 8, 35-39. [CrossRef]
Volpe, S.L. Magnesium in Disease Prevention and Overall Health. Adv. Nutr. 2013, 4, 378S-383S. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Pickering, G.; Mazur, A.; Trousselard, M.; Bienkowski, P.; Yaltsewa, N.; Amessou, M.; Noah, L.; Pouteau, E. Magnesium Status and Stress: The Vicious Circle Concept Revisited. Nutrients 2020,12, 3672. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Goadsby, P.J.; Holland, P.R.; Martins-Oliveira, M.; Hoffmann, J.; Schankin, C.; Akerman, S. Pathophysiology of Migraine: A Disorder of Sensory Processing. Physiol. Rev. 2017, 97, 553-622. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Hoffmann, J.; Charles, A. Glutamate and Its Receptors as Therapeutic Targets for Migraine. Neurotherapeutics 2018,15, 361-370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Linde, M.; Gustavsson, A.; Stovner, L.J.; Steiner, T.J.; Barré, J.; Katsarava, Z.; Lainez, J.M.; Lampl, C.; Lantéri-Minet, M.; Rastenyte, D.; et al. The cost of headache disorders in Europe: The Eurolight project. Eur. J. Neurol. 2011,19, 703-711. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nattagh-Eshtivani, E.; Sani, M.A.; Dahri, M.; Ghalichi, F.; Ghavami, A.; Arjang, P.; Tarighat-Esfanjani, A. The role of nutrients in the pathogenesis and treatment of migraine headaches: Review. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2018,102, 317-325. [CrossRef]
Lodi, R.; Iotti, S.; Cortelli, P.; Pierangeli, G.; Cevoli, S.; Clementi, V.; Soriani, S.; Montagna, P.; Barbiroli, B. Deficient energy metabolism is associated with low free magnesium in the brains of patients with migraine and cluster headache. Brain Res. Bull. 2001, 54, 437-441. [CrossRef]
Choi, H.; Parmar, N. The use of intravenous magnesium sulphate for acute migraine: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur. J. Emerg. Med. 2014, 21, 2-9. [CrossRef]
Chiu, H.-Y.; Yeh, T.-H.; Huang, Y.-C.; Chen, P.-Y. Effects of Intravenous and Oral Magnesium on Reducing Migraine: A Metaanalysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Pain Physician 2016,19, E97-E112.
Serefko, A.; Szopa, A.; Wlaz, P.; Nowak, G.; Radziwon-Zaleska, M.; Skalski, M.; Poleszak, E. Magnesium in depression. Pharmacol. Rep. 2013, 65, 547-554. [CrossRef]
Barragán-Rodríguez, L.; Rodríguez-Morán, M.; Guerrero-Romero, F. Efficacy and safety of oral magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression in the elderly with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, equivalent trial. Magnes. Res. 2008, 21, 218-223.
Jacka, F.N.; Maes, M.; Pasco, J.A.; Williams, L.J.; Berk, M. Nutrient intakes and the common mental disorders in women. J. Affect. Disord. 2012,141, 79-85. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Tarleton, E.K.; Littenberg, B. Magnesium intake and depression in adults. J. Am. Board Fam. Med. 2015, 28, 249-256. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Eby, G.A.; Eby, K.L. Rapid recovery from major depression using magnesium treatment. Med. Hypotheses 2006, 67, 362-370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Parazzini, F.; Di Martino, M.; Pellegrino, P. Magnesium in the gynaecological practice: A literature review. Magnes. Res. 2017, 30, 1-7. [PubMed]
Tarleton, E.K.; Littenberg, B.; MacLean, C.D.; Kennedy, A.G.; Daley, C. Role of magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression: A randomized clinical trial. PLoS ONE 2017,12, e0180067. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Li, B.; Lv, J.; Wang, W.; Zhang, D. Dietary magnesium and calcium intake and risk of depression in the general population: A meta-analysis. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2017, 51, 219-229. [CrossRef]
Barkerhaliski, M.L.; White, H.S. Glutamatergic Mechanisms Associated with Seizures and Epilepsy. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2015, 5, a022863. [CrossRef]
Chen, B.B.; Prasad, C.; Kobrzynski, M.; Campbell, C.; Filler, G. Seizures Related to Hypomagnesemia: A Case Series and Review of the Literature. Child Neurol. Open 2016, 3, 2329048X16674834. [CrossRef]
Maresova, P.; Klimova, B.; Novotny, M.; Kuca, K. Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases: Expected Economic Impact on Europe-A Call for a Uniform European Strategy. J. Alzheimer's Dis. 2016, 54,1123-1133. [CrossRef]
Zádori, D.; Veres, G.; Szalárdy, L.; Klivényi, P.; Vécsei, L. Alzheimer's Disease: Recent Concepts on the Relation of Mitochondrial Disturbances, Excitotoxicity, Neuroinflammation, and Kynurenines. J. Alzheimer's Dis. 2018, 62, 523-547. [CrossRef]
Fan, X.; Wheatley, E.G.; Villeda, S.A. Mechanisms of Hippocampal Aging and the Potential for Rejuvenation. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2017, 40, 251-272. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Xu, Z.-P.; Li, L.; Bao, J.; Wang, Z.-H.; Zeng, J.; Liu, E.-J.; Li, X.-G.; Huang, R.-X.; Gao, D.; Li, M.-Z.; et al. Magnesium Protects Cognitive Functions and Synaptic Plasticity in Streptozotocin-Induced Sporadic Alzheimer's Model. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e108645. [CrossRef]
Slutsky, I.; Abumaria, N.; Wu, L.-J.; Huang, C.; Zhang, L.; Li, B.; Zhao, X.; Govindarajan, A.; Zhao, M.-G.; Zhuo, M.; et al. Enhancement of Learning and Memory by Elevating Brain Magnesium. Neuron 2010, 65,165-177. [CrossRef]
Veronese, N.; Zurlo, A.; Solmi, M.; Luchini, C.; Trevisan, C.; Bano, G.; Manzato, E.; Sergi, G.; Rylander, R. Magnesium Status in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review. Am. J. Alzheimers. Dis. Other Demen. 2016, 31, 208-213. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Xue, W.; You, J.; Su, Y.; Wang, Q. The Effect of Magnesium Deficiency on Neurological Disorders: A Narrative Review Article. Iran. J. Public Health 2019, 48, 379-387. [CrossRef]
Barbiroli, B.; Martinelli, P.; Patuelli, A.; Lodi, R.; Iotti, S.; Cortelli, P.; Montagna, P. Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy in multiple system atrophy and Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 1999,14, 430-435. [CrossRef]
Miyake, Y.; Tanaka, K.; Fukushima, W.; Sasaki, S.; Kiyohara, C.; Tsuboi, Y.; Yamada, T.; Oeda, T.; Miki, T.; Kawamura, N.; et al. Dietary intake of metals and risk of Parkinson's disease: A case-control study in Japan. J. Neurol. Sci. 2011, 306, 98-102. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Hemamy, M.; Heidari-Beni, M.; Askari, G.; Karahmadi, M.; Maracy, M. Effect of Vitamin D and Magnesium Supplementation on Behavior Problems in Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2020,11, 4. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Archana, E.; Pai, P.; Prabhu, B.K.; Shenoy, R.P.; Prabhu, K.; Rao, A. Altered Biochemical Parameters in Saliva of Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurochem. Res. 2012, 37, 330-334. [CrossRef]
Mahmoud, M.M.; El-Mazary, A.-A.M.; Maher, R.M.; Saber, M.M. Zinc, ferritin, magnesium and copper in a group of Egyptian children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Ital. J. Pediatr. 2011, 37, 60. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Mousain-Bosc, M.; Roche, M.; Polge, A.; Pradal-Prat, D.; Rapin, J.; Bali, J.P. Improvement of neurobehavioral disorders in children supplemented with magnesium-vitamin B6: I. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders. Magnes. Res. 2006,19, 46-52. [PubMed]
El Baza, F.; AlShahawi, H.A.; Zahra, S.; AbdelHakim, R.A. Magnesium supplementation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Egypt. J. Med. Hum. Genet. 2016,17, 63-70. [CrossRef]

Vitamin D Life - Magnesium and Vitamin D contains

350 items in category, see also

Mg and Vitamin D

Dr. Dean

Number of studies in both of the categories of Magnesium and:

Bone 15, Cardiovascular 17, Diabetes 27. Depression 14, Obesity 11, Omega-3 35, Zinc 23, Pregnancy 10, Headache 11, Virus 26, Calcium 26 Virus 26 Mortality 9 Hypertension 11 Inflammation 3 Pain 7 etc.

Vitamin D Life - Overview Magnesium and vitamin D Has a venn diagram

Vitamin D Life - 26 studies in both categories Virus and Magnesium

This list is automatically updated

ID	Name	Comment	Uploaded	Size	Downloads
17715	Mg Requirements.jpg		admin 01 Jun, 2022	174.31 Kb	289
17714	Mg Def, Tox.jpg		admin 01 Jun, 2022	68.18 Kb	341
17713	ToC Mg.jpg		admin 01 Jun, 2022	58.04 Kb	238
17712	Mg march 2021_CompressPdf.pdf	PDF 2021	admin 01 Jun, 2022	534.79 Kb	133

Magnesium is important to health – March 2021

Table of contents

Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency

PDF Table of Contents

Mg Recommended intake

Mg Deficiency and Toxiocity

Sections clipped from PDF

Diabetes Mellitus

Osteoporosis

Cardiovascular Diseases

Cancer

Neurological Diseases

Conclusions

References

Vitamin D Life - Magnesium and Vitamin D contains

Vitamin D Life - Overview Magnesium and vitamin D Has a venn diagram

Vitamin D Life - 26 studies in both categories Virus and Magnesium

Attached files

Health Problems and D

Magnesium is important to health – March 2021

Table of contents

Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency

PDF Table of Contents

Mg Recommended intake

Mg Deficiency and Toxiocity

Sections clipped from PDF

Diabetes Mellitus

Osteoporosis

Cardiovascular Diseases

Cancer

Neurological Diseases

Conclusions

References

Vitamin D Life - Magnesium and Vitamin D contains

Vitamin D Life - Overview Magnesium and vitamin D Has a venn diagram

Vitamin D Life - 26 studies in both categories Virus and Magnesium

Page actions

Attached files

Health Problems and D